SEPUTAR BULUTANGKIS

What is Biomechanics?

2007-11-20T20:37:00.001+07:00

Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement of living things using the science of mechanics (Hatze, 1974). Mechanics is a branch of physics that is concerned with the description of motion and how forces create motion. Forces acting on living things can create motion, be a healthy stimulus for growth and development, or overload tissues, causing injury. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools that are necessary for understanding how living things move and how kinesiology professionals might improve movement or make movement safer.

Most readers of this book will be majors in departments of Kinesiology, Human Performance, or HPERD (Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance). Kinesiology comes from two Greek verbs that translated literally means “the study of movement.” Most American higher education programs in HPERD now use “kinesiology” in the title of their department because this term has come to be known as the academic area for the study of human movement (Corbin & Eckert, 1990). This change in terminology can be confusing because “kinesiology” is also the title of a foundational course on applied anatomy that was commonly required for a physical education degree in the first half of the twentieth century. This older meaning of kinesiology persists even today, possibly because biomechanics has only recently (since 1970s) become a recognized specialization of scientific study (Atwater, 1980; Wilkerson, 1997).

This book will use the term kinesiology in the modern sense of the whole academic area of the study of human movement.

Since kinesiology majors are pursuing careers focused on improving human movement, you and almost all kinesiology students are required to take at least one course on the biomechanics of human movement. It is a good thing that you are studying biomechanics. Once your friends and family know you are a kinesiology major, you will invariably be asked questions like: should I get one of those new rackets, why does my elbow hurt, or how can I stop my drive from slicing? Does it sometimes seem as if your friends and family have regressed to that preschool age when every other word out of their mouth is “why”? What is truly important about this common experience is that it is a metaphor for the life of a human movement professional.

Professions require formal study of theoretical and specialized knowledge that allows for the reliable solution to problems. This is the traditional meaning of the word “professional,” and it is different than its common use today. Today people refer to professional athletes or painters because people earn a living with these jobs, but I believe that kinesiology careers should strive to be more like true professions such as medicine or law.

People need help in improving human movement and this help requires knowledge of “why” and “how” the human body moves. Since biomechanics gives the kinesiology professional much of the knowledge and many of the skills necessary to answer these “what works?” and “why?” questions, biomechanics is an important science for solving human movement problems. However, biomechanics is but one of many sport and human movement science tools in a kinesiology professional's toolbox.

This text is also based on the philosophy that your biomechanical tools must be combined with tools from other kinesiology sciences to most effectively deal with human movement problems. Figure 1.1a illustrates the typical scientific subdisciplines of kinesiology. These typically are the core sciences all kinesiology majors take in their undergraduate preparations. This overview should not be interpreted to diminish the other academic subdisciplines common in kinesiology departments like sport history, sport philosophy, dance, and sport administration/management, just to name a few.

The important point is that knowledge from all the subdisciplines must be integrated in professional practice since problems in human movement are multifaceted, with many interrelated factors. For the most part, the human movement problems you face as a kinesiology professional will be like those “trick” questions professors ask on exams: they are complicated by many factors and tend to defy simple, dualistic (black/white) answers. While the application examples discussed in this text will emphasize biomechanical principles, readers should bear in mind that this biomechanical knowledge should be integrated with professional experience and the other subdisciplines of kinesiology. It is this interdisciplinary approach (Figure 1.1b) that is essential to finding the best interventions to help people more effectively and safely. Dotson (1980) suggests that true kinesiology professionals can integrate the many factors that interact to affect movement, while the layman typically looks at things one factor at time.

Unfortunately, this interdisciplinary approach to kinesiology instruction in higher education has been elusive (Harris, 1993). Let's look at some examples of human movement problems where it is particularly important to integrate biomechanical knowledge into the qualitative analysis.

Introduction

2007-11-20T20:19:00.001+07:00

Kinesiology is the scholarly study of human movement, and biomechanics is one of the many academic subdisciplines of kinesiology. Biomechanics in kinesiology involves the precise description of human movement and the study of the causes of human movement. The study of biomechanics is relevant to professional practice in many kinesiology professions. The physical educator or coach who is teaching movement technique and the athletic trainer or physical therapist treating an injury use biomechanics to qualitatively analyze movement. The chapters in part I demonstrate the importance of biomechanics in kinesiology and introduce you to key biomechanical terms and principles that will be developed throughout the text. The lab activities associated with part I relate to finding biomechanical knowledge and identifying biomechanical principles in action.

Shuttlecock Projecting Machine

2007-11-15T09:48:00.001+07:00

from: http://www.freepatentauction.com

The shuttlecock projecting machine is used for badminton training. It is designed so, that a player can practice badminton on his own, by being served continuosly and automatically with a plurality of shuttlecocks, individually in the desired strength, frequency and position so that a player can practice different strokes.The machine operates with electr/mechanical devices and is not complicated so that the manufacturing costs are kept low. The benefit of the machine compared to others is that it operates with only electrical supply and those not need other supplies, have wheels so it can be moved around on the court and set easily. The machine is silent and operates practicaly with no maintenance and running costs.

The flight of the shuttlecock:

2007-11-15T08:47:00.000+07:00

Badminton could finally break with its Victorian past if manufacturers succeed in producing a synthetic shuttlecock that matches the performance of the traditional feather one

by ALISON COOKE and JUSTIN
http://www.newscientist.com

More than forty years since the invention of the synthetic shuttlecock, players at next week's All England Open Badminton Championship in Birmingham will still be using goose feather designs dating from the early part of the century. Top players and coaches say manufacturers have yet to produce a synthetic shuttle that's as good as the real thing. But now manufacturers are hitting back. They're beginning to work out why feathered flight is so difficult to copy and claim that within 18 months a new generation of shuttlecocks with carbon fibre 'feathers' will transform players' attitudes.

The differences between feathered and nylon plastic shuttles are subtle. Players talk of a lack of control when playing with synthetic models. There is less 'touch', less 'feel'. Badminton is a sport of cunning. Success depends on deceiving your opponent with changes in racket angle and wrist movement in the last fraction of a second before playing the shot. Shuttles fly at speeds in excess of 67 metres per second (150 miles per hour) during a game and must be deftly controlled to make the deception work. Anders Nielsen, Britain's second ranked player, says: 'With less control, plastic designs reduce the variety of shots available to the player and so lead to a less tactical game.' And he points out that 'synthetic models travel faster through the air and so favour the attacking player who likes to smash'. The difference in speed is due to differences in air resistance between the two types of shuttle.

Feather shuttlecocks are made of a hemispherical cork or plastic nose with 16 feathers attached to it, and weigh around 5 grams. The spines of the feathers are glued into holes in the cork or plastic and fan out behind the nose to form a cone. Synthetic shuttles have the same shape but replace feathers with a moulded nylon plastic skirt. But because the skirt cannot mimic feathered flight, synthetic shuttles are banned from top-level badminton competitions.

Badminton developed from the ancient game of battledore and shuttlecock, in which several players tried keep a shuttle in the air for as long as possible. One theory suggests the modern game was first played in the 1860s by the Duke of Beaufort's family at Badminton House in Somerset. Another says the rules were developed earlier by British Army officers in Poona, India, and subsequently brought back to Badminton House.

The invention of a cheap and durable synthetic shuttlecock in 1952 gave the game wider appeal. Badminton is now played in over 123 countries and by an estimated 4 million people in England alone. Synthetic models now account for 60 per cent of shuttlecock sales and are used mostly by amateurs. They sell for about a £1 each, half the price of top quality feather models, and manufacturers claim they last three or four times as long. If a single spine breaks on a feather model, the whole shuttle must be replaced - although a recent version allows individual feathers to be replaced.

The International Badminton Federation (IBF), formed in 1934 and based in Cheltenham, issues guidelines on shuttlecock size, weight and shape. The feathers, a by-product of geese destined for the pot, must be between 64 and 70 millimetres long. When they are attached to the cork nose, they should form part of a cone between 58 and 68 millimetres across. The maximum diameter of the cone is important because it determines the drag on the shuttle and consequently its speed through the air. Manufacturers produce several 'speeds' by varying the weight of the shuttle between 4.74 and 5.50 grams and by using cones of different sizes. Players match the speed of the shuttle to playing conditions. At high temperatures, the air is less dense, for example, and shuttles fly faster. The players choose a slow speed to compensate.

Shuttlecocks must also spin. Because feathers differ slightly in size, weight and shape, shuttles are never perfectly symmetrical. The spin evens out the slight asymmetries which would otherwise cause the shuttle to veer off course. The feathers overlap like the blades of a turbine so that air flowing through them always produces an anti-clockwise rotation as viewed by the attacker as the shuttle leaves his or her racket.

The properties that give nylon the durability so treasured by amateurs, are, unfortunately, responsible for its shortfalls in professional play. Almost all the differences can be traced to the natural stiffness of feathers compared with plastic skirts. This affects the impact with the racket, the flight through the air, even the rate of spin. Feathers are ideally suited to badminton. Their circular cross section provides strength and, because they are hollow, feathers are also light. The plastic spines used in artificial designs, on the other hand, are solid but less rigid.

One important characteristic of shuttlecocks is how the skirt behaves when the shuttle comes into contact with the racket. Professional players describe the impact of synthetic shuttles with the racket as 'heavy' or 'dull' compared to the 'crisp' feel of feather models. High-speed photographs of shuttles striking a wall show that plastic skirts distort more than feather designs. The inward collapse of the skirt is a complex process that depends on how the shuttle is hit. In most shots, the racket hits the skirt as well as the nose of the shuttle. For example when the shuttle is hit high up in the air - a shot known as a high clear - it can descend almost vertically and if the next shot is an overhead smash the racket will hit the skirt as well as the nose.

COMPLEX COLLISIONS

Roy Buckland, a badminton coach and a mathematician specialising in flight dynamics, says that the more the skirt collapses, the more complex the collision between racket and shuttle becomes, making the shot more difficult to control. The fine-tuning players achieve with feather shuttles cannot be reproduced with a synthetic shuttle. Small variations in the way the racket and plastic skirt make contact lead to large differences in the way the skirt deforms, making control harder.

Plastic skirts also deform during flight. Wind-tunnel tests show that both feather and synthetic designs experience the same force at speeds of up to 23 metres per second. Any faster and the force on synthetic designs is less. During a typical smash a shuttle travels about a third of its trajectory at speeds greater than this. Video stills show plastic skirts starting to collapse at these speeds. The smaller cross section leads to less drag and explains why players such as Nielsen notice that plastic shuttles travel faster through the air.

Drag and speed differences affect trajectory. Computer simulations based on the wind-tunnel measurements show that plastic shuttles travel slightly farther in shots such as high clears and smashes, but a similar range for slow-speed drop shots.

The computer simulation could lead to improved designs. Manufacturers test new designs by building prototypes and asking top players to evaluate their performance. Computer models could calculate performance without the need for costly prototypes. But the programs are not yet sophisticated enough to reproduce all the effects of shuttle flight. The computer simulates the trajectory in two dimensions - in terms of height and distance. In top-level badminton, however, small three-dimensional effects such as a shuttle's drift to one side during flight can make a crucial difference to the game. The drift is a gyroscopic effect caused by the rotation of the shuttle around its direction of travel - quite different to the curling shots achieved by tennis players, for example, who add top spin or side spin to the ball.

SHUTTLES IN PRECESSION

To understand such phenomena, imagine looking down onto a badminton court from the attacker's end and watching a shuttle hit up towards you. At the top of its trajectory, the shuttle turns over to point down again. But as it turns, it angles itself always to the right, drifts a few centimetres before straightening out and dropping to the ground.

There are two processes at work. The first is a gyroscopic effect from the rotation of the shuttle around its direction of motion and the rotation as it turns over. Together these generate a force that turns the shuttle to the right, the same force that causes a spinning top to wobble, or precess, before falling over. The second process is a simple aerodynamic effect - with the shuttle angled to the right, it drifts to the right as it moves through the air. When the turnover is complete, the force disappears and the drift stops.

Top players hit high clears that seem to head out of the left side of the court (as seen by the attacker) but which then drift in. A smash, however, does not show this drift because there is no turnover in the middle of the trajectory. Players at the highest level must allow for drift, though many claim never to have noticed it. They even say they have more success with finely judged shots down the left-hand side of the court than down the right, but are unable to explain why.

The amount of drift depends on the amount of spin. Synthetic shuttles rotate at only half the speed of feather designs. Manufacturers can increase this speed with aerodynamic foils on the plastic spines but this makes the shuttles heavier or less rigid. Problems with rigidity affect an alternative skirt design which has a set of ridges like a paper fan. Manufacturers make large holes on one side of each ridge and smaller holes on the other. The air flows more easily through the larger holes creating a turning force. But wind-tunnel tests show that the skirts collapse more easily at high speeds because the ridges fold up like a concertina.

But synthetic shuttle design could be revolutionised by carbon fibre, which is much stronger than plastic - the reason for its use in rackets for tennis, squash and badminton. New artificial feathers will use a central core of carbon fibre surrounded by plastic. Manufacturers claim that shuttles made with carbon fibre feathers will look, feel and behave like the real thing and last longer too. But on the basis of current designs, they would be twice as expensive as feather shuttles and four times the cost of plastic models. Nevertheless, the race is on to find a new design that could produce reasonably priced carbon fibre shuttlecocks, perhaps within 15 months.

While some manufacturers regard this schedule as too optimistic, players at the 1996 All England Open may be able to judge whether carbon fibre feathers designed by scientists are better for badminton than the natural variety.

Alison Cooke is a mechanical engineer at the University of Cambridge and scientific adviser to Carlton Sports.
From issue 1916 of New Scientist magazine, 12 March 1994, page 40

Champion Sport Bra

2007-10-31T22:17:00.000+07:00

In the biological and physical aspects of a woman, a bra, short term for brasserie, is a vital biological and physical element. This is especially useful when a woman is engaged in strenuous activities like sports.

So, for those women who are sports buffs, here are some tips that you have to learn before you go out and buy the sports bra that you need:

1. Choose the right style.

Bear in mind that a sports bra is designed to provide maximum support and ease while on the track field or in any place that you play your game. And so, you should look for sports bra that are fit to you size and made up of materials that can make you feel comfortable wearing it while playing.

Deviate from the idea of haltered styles or detachable straps, as these are not the typical style of a sports bra.

2. Consider your breast size.

It's, in fact, a standard pointer when choosing bras of different types and functions. Though, it is more applicable when choosing sports bra because it should perfectly fit your breast. After all, you wouldn't like it if your breast go sagging and jumping as you play the game, right?

3. Try it on.

If you're considering you breast size, the most effective way of knowing if your sports bra fits your size is to try them on. In this way, you'll have a good look on how the sports bra will look good on you and how it will provide support for your beast.

There are instances that cup sizes don't provide accurate fittings and may not match the size of the sports bra available in the market, even if the states size is the same as yours. Also do the usual moves that you do when on the game like jumping or running. This will give an insight if it can support your breast while in action.

4. Know your sports.

Of course, you have to know this one first before you go out and find the sports bra that you need. This means that you should link your sport's nature of activity to the type of the available sports bra in the market.

If you're into jumping, running, and doing stunts, then it's best that you get a sports bra that provides full support and optimum comfort as well.

5. Buy it from a sports specialty store.

Unlike the typical bras, it's best that you buy your sports bra from a sports specialty store. Here, you can find help and suggestions from people who are knowledgeable on the matter. You can also ask them some additional tips on how to choose the right sports bra for your kind of activity.

Indeed, sports can be really rewarding especially if it's your area of interest. However, it can also be twice as frustrating in the event that the sports bra you've chosen does not snuggly fit. You may end up feeling exhausted and devastated at the same time if your breast jogs and runs along with you.

Also, keep in mind that opting for a quality and dependable sports bra doesn't have to be expensive. There are sports bras out there that are clinically designed to give you maximum support not just for your breast but for your pocket as well. The bottom line is: shop around!

Joyce Dietzel writes articles for my-bra-store.com a website dedicated to bras for your every need

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Joyce_Dietzel

Overcoming Nervousness?

2007-10-25T23:37:00.000+07:00

from:
http://www.badmintonsecrets.blogspot.com/

If there is one thing that people say to me causes the most problems with their badminton, it's nervousness.

You might be playing really well in practice, and your confidence levels going into an important match of tournament might be really high.

But then on the day, you start worrying about what's going to happen, your palms get sweaty and the mere prospect of going on court starts you wishing you were somewhere else!

Well fear not, for I have a simple tip that I hope will help with this.

Now, think for a mintue about what happens when you get nervous.

You might get the sweaty hands, the 'butterflies in the stomach' that we all (even the very best players) get from time to time.

But THEN what happens?

You think 'oh no, I'm so nervous, I'm never going to be able to win this game' and you try to relax and stop feeling nervous.

Which makes a lot of sense.

It's only natural that the first thing we think of when we get nervous is how we can stop getting nervous!!

But it isn't the being nervous that causes the problems, but the worrying about what being nervous might lead to.

And so what we need to do is to cut off the step from being nervous to worrying about being nervous, and we will as a result stop the negative things that are happening, such as not playing as well as we could do.

But how does this happen?

Simply by changing the thoughts that you get when you feel the first signs of nervousness.

The 'butterflies' in the stomach happen, and normally that would be seen as a bad thing. But there is no reason to do this - the butterflies (and all other means of being nervous!) are there to protect you, to warn your body that what is going to happen is something that is out of your 'comfort zone'.

It is when we decide to ignore them or try to stop them that the trouble begins.

If you simply acknowledge that they are there, be thankful that they are there to protect you, and view them as a good thing, you will be well on the way to combatting the nervousness.

Because nervousness is OK.

I like to think of nervousness as a sign that you are really living your life (and more importantly your game!).

Your badminton isn't going to improve if you're not going to put yourself into situations that scare you, that make you nervous and give you the butterflies.

So if that is happening, it means you are doing just what you need to do to take your badminton to the next level.

And that HAS to be a good thing!

So, whenever you next get nervous when you are playing badminton, remember that it is simply your body reminding you that you are doing just what you need to do to get better!

Next time we look at turning this nervous energy into a positive, badminton-improving energy that will take your game even higher.

Section: 4 How to Stretch

2007-10-08T12:24:00.000+07:00

When done properly, stretching can do more than just increase flexibility. According to M. Alter, benefits of stretching include:

enhanced physical fitness
enhanced ability to learn and perform skilled movements
increased mental and physical relaxation
enhanced development of body awareness
reduced risk of injury to joints, muscles, and tendons
reduced muscular soreness
reduced muscular tension
increased suppleness due to stimulation of the production of chemicals which lubricate connective tissues (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue])
reduced severity of painful menstruation ("dysmenorrhea") in females

Unfortunately, even those who stretch do not always stretch properly and hence do not reap some or all of these benefits. Some of the most common mistakes made when stretching are:

improper warm-up
inadequate rest between workouts
overstretching
performing the wrong exercises
performing exercises in the wrong (or sub-optimal) sequence

In this chapter, we will try to show you how to avoid these problems, and others, and present some of the most effective methods for realizing all the benefits of stretching.

Section: 4.1 Warming Up

Stretching is *not* warming up! It is, however, a very important part of warming up. Warming up is quite literally the process of "warming up" (i.e., raising your core body temperature). A proper warm-up should raise your body temperature by one or two degrees Celsius (1.4 to 2.8 degrees Fahrenheit) and is divided into three phases:

general warm-up
stretching
sport-specific activity

It is very important that you perform the general warm-up *before* you stretch. It is *not* a good idea to attempt to stretch before your muscles are warm (something which the general warm-up accomplishes).

Warming up can do more than just loosen stiff muscles; when done properly, it can actually improve performance. On the other hand, an improper warm-up, or no warm-up at all, can greatly increase your risk of injury from engaging in athletic activities.

It is important to note that active stretches and isometric stretches should *not* be part of your warm-up because they are often counterproductive. The goals of the warm-up are (according to Kurz): "an increased awareness, improved coordination, improved elasticity and contractibility of muscles, and a greater efficiency of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems." Active stretches and isometric stretches do not help achieve these goals because they are likely to cause the stretched muscles to be too tired to properly perform the athletic activity for which you are preparing your body.

Section: 4.1.1 General Warm-Up

The general warm-up is divided into two parts:

joint rotations
aerobic activity

These two activities should be performed in the order specified above.

Section: 4.1.1.1 Joint Rotations

The general warm-up should begin with joint-rotations, starting either from your toes and working your way up, or from your fingers and working your way down. This facilitates joint motion by lubricating the entire joint with synovial fluid. Such lubrication permits your joints to function more easily when called upon to participate in your athletic activity. You should perform slow circular movements, both clockwise and counter-clockwise, until the joint seems to move smoothly. You should rotate the following (in the order given, or in the reverse order):

fingers and knuckles
wrists
elbows
shoulders
neck
trunk/waist
hips
legs
knees
ankles
toes

Section: 4.1.1.2 Aerobic Activity

After you have performed the joint rotations, you should engage in at least five minutes of aerobic activity such as jogging, jumping rope, or any other activity that will cause a similar increase in your cardiovascular output (i.e., get your blood pumping). The purpose of this is to raise your core body temperature and get your blood flowing. Increased blood flow in the muscles improves muscle performance and flexibility and reduces the likelihood of injury.

Section: 4.1.2 Warm-Up Stretching

The stretching phase of your warmup should consist of two parts:

static stretching
dynamic stretching

It is important that static stretches be performed *before* any dynamic stretches in your warm-up. Dynamic stretching can often result in overstretching, which damages the muscles (see Section 4.12.3 [Overstretching]). Performing static stretches first will help reduce this risk of injury.

Section: 4.1.2.1 Static Warm-Up Stretching

Once the general warm-up has been completed, the muscles are warmer and more elastic. Immediately following your general warm-up, you should engage in some slow, relaxed, static stretching (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]). You should start with your back, followed by your upper body and lower body, stretching your muscles in the following order (see Section 4.8 [Exercise Order]):

back
sides (external obliques)
neck
forearms and wrists
triceps
chest
buttocks
groin (adductors)
thighs (quadriceps and abductors)
calves
shins
hamstrings
instep

Some good static stretches for these various muscles may be found in most books about stretching. See Section Appendix A [References on Stretching]. Unfortunately, not everyone has the time to stretch all these muscles before a workout. If you are one such person, you should at least take the time to stretch all the muscles that will be heavily used during your workout.

Section: 4.1.2.2 Dynamic Warm-Up Stretching

Once you have performed your static stretches, you should engage in some light dynamic stretching: leg-raises, and arm-swings in all directions (see Section 3.2 [Dynamic Stretching]). According to Kurz, you should do "as many sets as it takes to reach your maximum range of motion in any given direction", but do not work your muscles to the point of fatigue. Remember - this is just a warm-up, the real workout comes later.

Some people are surprised to find that dynamic stretching has a place in the warm-up. But think about it: you are "warming up" for a workout that is (usually) going to involve a lot of dynamic activity. It makes sense that you should perform some dynamic exercises to increase your dynamic flexibility.

Section: 4.1.3 Sport-Specific Activity

The last part of your warm-up should be devoted to performing movements that are a "watered-down" version of the movements that you will be performing during your athletic activity. `HFLTA' says that the last phase of a warm-up should consist of the same movements that will be used during the athletic event but at a reduced intensity. Such "sport-specific activity" is beneficial because it improves coordination, balance, strength, and response time, and may reduce the risk of injury.

Section: 4.2 Cooling Down

Stretching is *not* a legitimate means of cooling down. It is only part of the process. After you have completed your workout, the best way to reduce muscle fatigue and soreness (caused by the production of lactic acid from your maximal or near-maximal muscle exertion) is to perform a light "warm-down". This warm-down is similar to the second half of your warm-up (but in the reverse order). The warm-down consists of the following phases:

sport-specific activity
dynamic stretching
static stretching

Ideally, you should start your warm-down with about 10-20 minutes of sport-specific activity (perhaps only a little more intense than in your warm-up). In reality however, you may not always have 10-20 minutes to spare at the end of your workout. You should, however, attempt to perform at least 5 minutes of sport-specific activity in this case. The sport-specific activity should immediately be followed by stretching: First perform some light dynamic stretches until your heart rate slows down to its normal rate, then perform some static stretches. Sport-specific activity, followed by stretching, can reduce cramping, tightening, and soreness in fatigued muscles and will make you feel better.

According to `HFLTA', "light warm-down exercise immediately following maximal exertion is a better way of clearing lactic acid from the blood than complete rest." Furthermore, if you are still sore the next day, a light warm-up or warm-down is a good way to reduce lingering muscle tightness and soreness even when not performed immediately after a workout. See Section 4.12 [Pain and Discomfort].

Section: 4.3 Massage

Many people are unaware of the beneficial role that massage can play in both strength training and flexibility training. Massaging a muscle, or group of muscles, immediately prior to performing stretching or strength exercises for those muscles, has some of the following benefits:

increased blood flow
The massaging of the muscles helps to warm-up those muscles, increasing their blood flow and improving their circulation.

relaxation of the massaged muscles
The massaged muscles are more relaxed. This is particularly helpful when you are about to stretch those muscles. It can also help relieve painful muscle cramps.

removal of metabolic waste
The massaging action, and the improved circulation and blood flow which results, helps to remove waste products, such as lactic acid, from the muscles. This is useful for relieving post-exercise soreness.

Because of these benefits, you may wish to make massage a regular part of your stretching program: immediately before each stretch you perform, massage the muscles you are about to stretch.

Section: 4.4 Elements of a Good Stretch

According to `SynerStretch', there are three factors to consider when determining the effectiveness of a particular stretching exercise:

isolation
leverage
risk

Section: 4.4.1 Isolation

Ideally, a particular stretch should work only the muscles you are trying to stretch. Isolating the muscles worked by a given stretch means that you do not have to worry about having to overcome the resistance offered by more than one group of muscles. In general, the fewer muscles you try to stretch at once, the better. For example, you are better off trying to stretch one hamstring at a time than both hamstrings at once. By isolating the muscle you are stretching, you experience resistance from fewer muscle groups, which gives you greater control over the stretch and allows you to more easily change its intensity. As it turns out, the splits is not one of the best stretching exercises. Not only does it stretch several different muscle groups all at once, it also stretches them in both legs at once.

Section: 4.4.2 Leverage

Having leverage during a stretch means having sufficient control over how intense the stretch becomes, and how fast. If you have good leverage, not only are you better able to achieve the desired intensity of the stretch, but you do not need to apply as much force to your outstretched limb in order to effectively increase the intensity of the stretch. This gives you greater control.

According to `SynerStretch', the best stretches (those which are most effective) provide the greatest mechanical advantage over the stretched muscle. By using good leverage, it becomes easier to overcome the resistance of inflexible muscles (the same is true of isolation). Many stretching exercises (good and bad) can be made easier and more effective simply by adjusting them to provide greater leverage.

Section: 4.4.3 Risk

Although a stretch may be very effective in terms of providing the athlete with ample leverage and isolation, the potential risk of injury from performing the stretch must be taken into consideration. Once again, `SynerStretch' says it best: Even an exercise offering great leverage and great isolation may still be a poor choice to perform. Some exercises can simply cause too much stress to the joints (which may result in injury). They may involve rotations that strain tendons or ligaments, or put pressure on the disks of the back, or contain some other twist or turn that may cause injury to seemingly unrelated parts of the body.

Section: 4.5 Some Risky Stretches

The following stretches (many of which are commonly performed) are considered risky (M. Alter uses the term `X'-rated) due to the fact that they have a very high risk of injury for the athlete that performs them. This does not mean that these stretches should never be performed. However, great care should be used when attempting any of these stretches. Unless you are an advanced athlete or are being coached by a qualified instructor (such as a certified Yoga instructor, physical therapist, or professional trainer), you can probably do without them (or find alternative stretching exercises to perform). When performed correctly with the aid of an instructor however, some of these stretches can be quite beneficial. Each of these stretches is illustrated in detail in the section `X-Rated Exercises' of M. Alter:

"the yoga plough"
In this exercise, you lie down on your back and then try to sweep your legs up and over, trying to touch your knees to your ears. This position places excessive stress on the lower back, and on the discs of the spine. Not to mention the fact that it compresses the lungs and heart, and makes it very difficult to breathe. This particular exercise also stretches a region that is frequently flexed as a result of improper posture. This stretch is a prime example of an exercise that is very easy to do incorrectly. However, with proper instruction and attention to body position and alignment, this stretch can be performed successfully with a minimal amount of risk and can actually improve spinal health and mobility.

"the traditional backbend"
In this exercise, your back is maximally arched with the soles of your feet and the palms of your hands both flat on the floor, and your neck tilted back. This position squeezes (compresses) the spinal discs and pinches nerve fibers in your back.

"the traditional hurdler's stretch"
This exercise has you sit on the ground with one leg straight in front of you, and with the other leg fully flexed (bent) behind you, as you lean back and stretch the quadricep of the flexed leg. The two legged version of this stretch is even worse for you, and involves fully bending both legs behind you on either side. The reason this stretch is harmful is that it stretches the medial ligaments of the knee (remember, stretching ligaments and tendons is *bad*) and crushes the meniscus. It can also result in slipping of the knee cap from being twisted and compressed.

"straight-legged toe touches"
In this stretch, your legs are straight (either together or spread apart) and your back is bent over while you attempt to touch your toes or the floor. If you do not have the ability to support much of your weight with your hands when performing this exercise, your knees are likely to hyperextend. This position can also place a great deal of pressure on the vertebrae of the lower lumbar. Furthermore, if you choose to have your legs spread apart, it places more stress on the knees, which can sometimes result in permanent deformity.

"torso twists"
Performing sudden, intense twists of the torso, especially with weights, while in an upright (erect) position can tear tissue (by exceeding the momentum absorbing capacity of the stretched tissues) and can strain the ligaments of the knee.

"inverted stretches"
This is any stretch where you "hang upside down". Staying inverted for too long increases your blood pressure and may even rupture blood vessels (particularly in the eyes). Inverted positions are especially discouraged for anyone with spinal problems.

Section: 4.6 Duration, Counting, and Repetition

One thing many people seem to disagree about is how long to hold a passive stretch in its position. Various sources seem to suggest that they should be held for as little as 10 seconds to as long as a full minute (or even several minutes). The truth is that no one really seems to know for sure. According to `HFLTA' there exists some controversy over how long a stretch should be held. Many researchers recommend 30-60 seconds. For the hamstrings, research suggests that 15 seconds may be sufficient, but it is not yet known whether 15 seconds is sufficient for any other muscle group.

A good common ground seems to be about 20 seconds. Children, and people whose bones are still growing, do not need to hold a passive stretch this long (and, in fact, Kurz strongly discourages it). Holding the stretch for about 7-10 seconds should be sufficient for this younger group of people.

A number of people like to count (either out loud or to themselves) while they stretch. While counting during a stretch is not, by itself, particularly important ... what is important is the setting of a definite goal for each stretching exercise performed. Counting during a stretch helps many people achieve this goal.

Many sources also suggest that passive stretches should be performed in sets of 2-5 repetitions with a 15-30 second rest in between each stretch.

Section: 4.7 Breathing During Stretching

Proper breathing control is important for a successful stretch. Proper breathing helps to relax the body, increases blood flow throughout the body, and helps to mechanically remove lactic acid and other by-products of exercise.

You should be taking slow, relaxed breaths when you stretch, trying to exhale as the muscle is stretching. Some even recommend increasing the intensity of the stretch only while exhaling, holding the stretch in its current position at all other times (this doesn't apply to isometric stretching).

The proper way to breathe is to inhale slowly through the nose, expanding the abdomen (not the chest); hold the breath a moment; then exhale slowly through the nose or mouth. Inhaling through the nose has several purposes including cleaning the air and insuring proper temperature and humidity for oxygen transfer into the lungs. The breath should be natural and the diaphragm and abdomen should remain soft. There should be no force of the breath. Some experts seem to prefer exhaling through the nose (as opposed to through the mouth) saying that exhaling through the mouth causes depression on the heart and that problems will ensue over the long term.

The rate of breathing should be controlled through the use of the glottis in the back of the throat. This produces a very soft "hm-m-m-mn" sound inside the throat as opposed to a sniffing sound in the nasal sinuses. The exhalation should be controlled in a similar manner, but if you are exhaling through the mouth, it should be with more of an "ah-h-h-h-h" sound, like a sigh of relief.

As you breathe in, the diaphragm presses downward on the internal organs and their associated blood vessels, squeezing the blood out of them. As you exhale, the abdomen, its organs and muscles, and their blood vessels flood with new blood. This rhythmic contraction and expansion of the abdominal blood vessels is partially responsible for the circulation of blood in the body. Also, the rhythmic pumping action helps to remove waste products from the muscles in the torso. This pumping action is referred to as the "respiratory pump". The respiratory pump is important during stretching because increased blood flow to the stretched muscles improves their elasticity, and increases the rate at which lactic acid is purged from them.

Section: 4.8 Exercise Order

Many people are unaware of the fact that the order in which you perform your stretching exercises is important. Quite often, when we perform a particular stretch, it actually stretches more than one group of muscles: the muscles that the stretch is primarily intended for, and other supporting muscles that are also stretched but which do not receive the "brunt" of the stretch. These supporting muscles usually function as synergists for the muscles being stretched (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups]). This is the basis behind a principle that `SynerStretch' calls the "interdependency of muscle groups".

Before performing a stretch intended for a particular muscle, but which actually stretches several muscles, you should first stretch each of that muscle's synergists. The benefit of this is that you are able to better stretch the primary muscles by not allowing the supporting muscles the opportunity to be a limiting factor in how "good" a stretch you can attain for a particular exercise.

Ideally, it is best to perform a stretch that isolates a particular muscle group, but this is not always possible. According to `SynerStretch': "by organizing the exercises within a stretching routine according to the principle of interdependency of muscle groups, you minimize the effort required to perform the routine, and maximize the effectiveness of the individual exercises." This is what `Health For Life' (in all of their publications) calls "synergism": "combining elements to create a whole that is greater than the mere sum of its parts."

For example, a stretch intended primarily for the hamstrings may also make some demands upon the calves and buttocks (and even the lower back) but mostly, it stretches the hamstrings. In this case, it would be beneficial to stretch the lower back, buttocks, and calves first (in that order, using stretches intended primarily for those muscles) before they need to be used in a stretch that is intended primarily for the hamstrings.

As a general rule, you should usually do the following when putting together a stretching routine:

stretch your back (upper and lower) first
stretch your sides after stretching your back
stretch your buttocks before stretching your groin or your hamstrings
stretch your calves before stretching your hamstrings
stretch your shins before stretching your quadriceps (if you do shin stretches)
stretch your arms before stretching your chest

Section: 4.9 When to Stretch

The best time to stretch is when your muscles are warmed up. If they are not already warm before you wish to stretch, then you need to warm them up yourself, usually by performing some type of brief aerobic activity (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up]). Obviously, stretching is an important part of warming-up before (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up]), and cooling-down after a workout (see Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]). If the weather is very cold, or if you are feeling very stiff, then you need to take extra care to warm-up before you stretch in order to reduce the risk of injuring yourself.

Many of us have our own internal body-clock, or "circadian rhythm" as, it is more formally called: Some of us are "early morning people" while others consider themselves to be "late-nighters". Being aware of your circadian rhythm should help you decide when it is best for you to stretch (or perform any other type of activity). Gummerson says that most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm. Also, according to `HFLTA', evidence seems to suggest that, during any given day, strength and flexibility are at their peak in the late afternoon or early evening. If this is correct then it would seem to indicate that, all else being equal, you may be better off performing your workout right after work rather than before work.

Section: 4.9.1 Early-Morning Stretching

On the other hand, according to Kurz, "if you need [or want] to perform movements requiring considerable flexibility with [little or] no warm-up, you ought to make early morning stretching a part of your routine." In order to do this properly, you need to first perform a general warm-up (see Section 4.1.1 [General Warm-Up]). You should then begin your early morning stretching by first performing some static stretches, followed by some light dynamic stretches. Basically, your early morning stretching regimen should be almost identical to a complete warm-up (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up]). The only difference is that you may wish to omit any sport-specific activity (see Section 4.1.3 [Sport-Specific Activity]), although it may be beneficial to perform it *if* you have time.

Section: 4.10 Stretching With a Partner

When done properly, stretches performed with the assistance of a partner can be more effective than stretches performed without a partner. This is especially true of isometric stretches (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]) and PNF stretches (see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]). The problem with using a partner, however, is that the partner does not feel what you feel, and thus cannot respond as quickly to any discomfort that might prompt you to immediately reduce the intensity (or some other aspect) of the stretch. This can greatly increase your risk of injury while performing a particular exercise.

If you do choose to stretch with a partner, make sure that it is someone you trust to pay close attention to you while you stretch, and to act appropriately when you signal that you are feeling pain or discomfort.

Section: 4.11 Stretching to Increase Flexibility

When stretching for the purpose of increasing overall flexibility, a stretching routine should accomplish, at the very least, two goals:

To train your stretch receptors to become accustomed to greater muscle length (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]).
To reduce the resistance of connective tissues to muscle elongation (see Section 2.2.1 [How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility]).

If you are attempting to increase active flexibility (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), you will also want to strengthen the muscles responsible for holding the stretched limbs in their extended positions.

Before composing a particular stretching routine, you must first decide which types of flexibility you wish to increase (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), and which stretching methods are best for achieving them (see Section 3 [Types of Stretching]). The best way to increase dynamic flexibility is by performing dynamic stretches, supplemented with static stretches. The best way to increase active flexibility is by performing active stretches, supplemented with static stretches. The fastest and most effective way currently known to increase passive flexibility is by performing PNF stretches (see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]).

If you are very serious about increasing overall flexibility, then I recommend religiously adhering to the following guidelines:

Perform early-morning stretching everyday (see Section 4.9.1 [Early-Morning Stretching]).
Warm-up properly before any and all athletic activities. Make sure to give yourself ample time to perform the complete warm-up. See Section 4.1 [Warming Up].
Cool-down properly after any and all athletic activities. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down].
Always make sure your muscles are warmed-up before you stretch!
Perform PNF stretching every other day, and static stretching on the off days (if you are overzealous, you can try static stretching every day, in addition to PNF stretching every other day).

Overall, you should expect to increase flexibility *gradually*. However, If you really commit to doing the above, you should (according to `SynerStretch') achieve maximal upper-body flexibility within one month and maximal lower-body flexibility within two months. If you are older or more inflexible than most people, it will take longer than this.

Don't try to increase flexibility too quickly by forcing yourself. Stretch no further than the muscles will go *without pain*. See Section 4.12.3 [Overstretching].

Section: 4.12 Pain and Discomfort

If you are experiencing pain or discomfort before, during, or after stretching or athletic activity, then you need to try to identify the cause. Severe pain (particularly in the joints, ligaments, or tendons) usually indicates a serious injury of some sort, and you may need to discontinue stretching and/or exercising until you have sufficiently recovered.

Section: 4.12.1 Common Causes of Muscular Soreness

If you are experiencing soreness, stiffness, or some other form of muscular pain, then it may be due to one or more of the following:

torn tissue
Overstretching and engaging in athletic activities without a proper warm-up can cause microscopic tearing of muscle fibers or connective tissues. If the tear is not too severe, the pain will usually not appear until one or two days after the activity that caused the damage. If the pain occurs during or immediately after the activity, then it may indicate a more serious tear (which may require medical attention). If the pain is not too severe, then light, careful static stretching of the injured area is supposedly okay to perform (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]). It is hypothesized that torn fibers heal at a shortened length, thus decreasing flexibility in the injured muscles. Very light stretching of the injured muscles helps reduce loss of flexibility resulting from the injury. Intense stretching of any kind, however, may only make matters worse.

metabolic accumulation
Overexertion and/or intense muscular activity will fatigue the muscles and cause them to accumulate lactic acid and other waste products. If this is the cause of your pain, then static stretching (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]), isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]), or a good warm-up (see Section 4.1 [Warming Up]) or cool-down (see Section 4.2 [Cooling Down]) will help alleviate some of the soreness. See Section 2.3.1 [Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch]. Massaging the sore muscles may also help relieve the pain (see Section 4.3 [Massage]). It has also been claimed that supplements of vitamin C will help alleviate this type of pain, but controlled tests using placebos have been unable to lend credibility to this hypothesis. The ingestion of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) before athletic activity has been shown to help increase the body's buffering capacity and reduce the output of lactic acid. However, it can also cause urgent diarrhea.

muscle spasms
Exercising above a certain threshold can cause a decreased flow of blood to the active muscles. This can cause pain resulting in a protective reflex which contracts the muscle isotonically (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions]). The reflex contraction causes further decreases in blood flow, which causes more reflex contractions, and so on, causing the muscle to spasm by repeatedly contracting. One common example of this is a painful muscle cramp. Immediate static stretching of the cramped muscle can be helpful in relieving this type of pain. However, it can sometimes make things worse by activating the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]), which may cause further muscle contractions. Massaging the cramped muscle (and trying to relax it) may prove more useful than stretching in relieving this type of pain (see Section 4.3 [Massage]).

Section: 4.12.2  Stretching with Pain

If you are already experiencing some type of pain or discomfort before you begin stretching, then it is very important that you determine the cause of your pain (see Section 4.12.1 [Common Causes of Muscular Soreness]). Once you have determined the cause of the pain, you are in a better position to decide whether or not you should attempt to stretch the affected area.

Also, according to M. Alter, it is important to remember that some amount of soreness will almost always be experienced by individuals that have not stretched or exercised much in the last few months (this is the price you pay for being inactive). However, well-trained and conditioned athletes who work-out at elevated levels of intensity or difficulty can also become sore. You should cease exercising immediately if you feel or hear anything tearing or popping. Remember the acronym "RICE" when caring for an injured body part. RICE stands for: Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. This will help to minimize the pain and swelling. You should then seek appropriate professional medical advice.

Section: 4.12.3 Overstretching

If you stretch properly, you should *not* be sore the day after you have stretched. If you are, then it may be an indication that you are overstretching and that you need to go easier on your muscles by reducing the intensity of some (or all) of the stretches you perform. Overstretching will simply increase the time it takes for you to gain greater flexibility. This is because it takes time for the damaged muscles to repair themselves, and to offer you the same flexibility as before they were injured.

One of the easiest ways to "overstretch" is to stretch "cold" (without any warm-up). A "maximal cold stretch" is not necessarily a desirable thing. Just because a muscle can be moved to its limit without warming up doesn't mean it is ready for the strain that a workout will place on it.

Obviously, during a stretch (even when you stretch properly) you are going to feel some amount of discomfort. The difficulty is being able to discern when it is too much. In her book, `Stretch and Strengthen', Judy Alter describes what she calls "ouch! pain": If you feel like saying "ouch!" (or perhaps something even more explicit) then you should ease up immediately and discontinue the stretch. You should definitely feel the tension in your muscle, and perhaps even light, gradual "pins and needles", but if it becomes sudden, sharp, or uncomfortable, then you are overdoing it and are probably tearing some muscle tissue (or worse). In some cases, you may follow all of these guidelines when you stretch, feeling that you are not in any "real" pain, but still be sore the next day. If this is the case, then you will need to become accustomed to stretching with less discomfort (you might be one of those "stretching masochists" that take great pleasure in the pain that comes from stretching).

Quite frequently, the progression of sensations you feel as you reach the extreme ranges of a stretch are: localized warmth of the stretched muscles, followed by a burning (or spasm-like) sensation, followed by sharp pain (or "ouch!" pain). The localized warming will usually occur at the origin, or point of insertion, of the stretched muscles. When you begin to feel this, it is your first clue that you may need to "back off" and reduce the intensity of the stretch. If you ignore (or do not feel) the warming sensation, and you proceed to the point where you feel a definite burning sensation in the stretched muscles, then you should ease up immediately and discontinue the stretch! You may not be sore yet, but you probably will be the following day. If your stretch gets to the point where you feel sharp pain, it is quite likely that the stretch has already resulted in tissue damage which may cause immediate pain and soreness that persists for several days.

Section: 4.13 Performing Splits

A lot of people seem to desire the ability to perform splits. If you are one such person, you should first ask yourself why you want to be able to perform the splits. If the answer is "So I can kick high!" or something along those lines, then being able to "do" the splits may not be as much help as you think it might be in achieving your goal. Doing a full split looks impressive, and a lot of people seem to use it as a benchmark of flexibility, but it will not, in and of itself, enable you to kick high. Kicking high requires dynamic flexibility (and, to some extent, active flexibility) whereas the splits requires passive flexibility. You need to discern what type of flexibility will help to achieve your goal (see Section 2.1 [Types of Flexibility]), and then perform the types of stretching exercises that will help you achieve that specific type of flexibility. See Section 3 [Types of Stretching].

If your goal really is "to be able to perform splits" (or to achieve maximal lower-body static-passive flexibility), and assuming that you already have the required range of motion in the hip joints to even do the splits (most people in reasonably good health without any hip problems do), you will need to be patient. Everyone is built differently and so the amount of time it will take to achieve splits will be different for different people (although `SynerStretch' suggests that it should take about two months of regular PNF stretching for most people to achieve their maximum split potential). The amount of time it takes will depend on your previous flexibility and body makeup. Anyone will see improvements in flexibility within weeks with consistent, frequent, and proper stretching. Trust your own body, take it gently, and stretch often. Try not to dwell on the splits, concentrate more on the stretch. Also, physiological differences in body mechanics may not allow you to be very flexible. If so, take that into consideration when working out.

A stretching routine tailored to the purpose of achieving the ability to perform splits may be found at the end of this document. See Section Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits].

Section: 4.13.1 Common Problems When Performing Splits

First of all, there are two kinds of splits: front and side (the side split is often called a "chinese split"). In a Front split, you have one leg stretched out to the front and the other leg stretched out to the back. In a side split, both legs are stretched out to your side.

A common problem encountered during a side split is pain in the hip joints. Usually, the reason for this is that the split is being performed improperly (you may need to tilt your pelvis forward).

Another common problem encountered during splits (both front and side) is pain in the knees. This pain can often (but not always) be alleviated by performing a slightly different variation of the split. See Section 4.13.2 [The Front Split]. See Section 4.13.3 [The Side Split].

Section: 4.13.2 The Front Split

For front splits, the front leg should be straight and its kneecap should be facing the ceiling, or sky. The front foot can be pointed or flexed (there will be a greater stretch in the front hamstring if the front foot is flexed). The kneecap of the back leg should either be facing the floor (which puts more of a stretch on the quadriceps and psoas muscles), or out to the side (which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscles). If it is facing the floor, then it will probably be pretty hard to flex the back foot, since its instep should be on the floor. If the back kneecap is facing the side, then your back foot should be stretched out (not flexed) with its toes pointed to reduce undue stress upon the knee. Even with the toes of the back foot pointed, you may still feel that there is to much stress on your back knee (in which case you should make it face the floor).

Section: 4.13.3 The Side Split

For side splits, you can either have both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the ceiling, which puts more of a stretch on the hamstrings, or you can have both kneecaps (and insteps) face the front, which puts more of a stretch on the inner-thigh (groin) muscle. The latter position puts more stress on the knee joints and may cause pain in the knees for some people. If you perform side splits with both kneecaps (and insteps) facing the front then you *must* be sure to tilt your pelvis forward (push your buttocks to the rear) or you may experience pain in your hip joints.

Section: 4.13.4 Split-Stretching Machines

Many of you may have seen an advertisement for a "split-stretching" machine in your favorite exercise/athletic magazine. These machines look like "benches with wings". They have a padded section upon which to sit, and two padded sections in which to place your legs (the machine should ensure that no pressure is applied upon the knees). The machine functions by allowing you to gradually increase the "stretch" in your adductors (inner-thigh muscles) through manual adjustments which increase the degree of the angle between the legs. Such machines usually carry a hefty price tag, often in excess of $100 (American currency).

A common question people ask about these machines is "are they worth the price?". The answer to that question is entirely subjective. Although the machine can certainly be of valuable assistance in helping you achieve the goal of performing a side-split, it is not necessarily any better (or safer) than using a partner while you stretch. The main advantage that these machines have over using a partner is that they give you (not your partner) control of the intensity of the stretch. The amount of control provided depends on the individual machine.

One problem with these "split-stretchers" is that there is a common tendency to use them to "force" a split (which can often result in injury) and/or to hold the "split" position for far longer periods of time than is advisable.

The most effective use of a split-stretching machine is to use it as your "partner" to provide resistance for PNF stretches for the groin and inner thigh areas (see Section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]). When used properly, "split-stretchers" can provide one of the best ways to stretch your groin and inner-thighs without the use of a partner.

However, they do cost quite a bit of money and they don't necessarily give you a better stretch than a partner could. If you don't want to "cough-up" the money for one of these machines, I recommend that you either use a partner and/or perform the lying `V' stretch described later on in this document (see Section Appendix B [Working Toward the Splits]).

Section: 3 Types of Stretching

2007-09-30T23:01:00.000+07:00

Just as there are different types of flexibility, there are also different types of stretching. Stretches are either dynamic (meaning they involve motion) or static (meaning they involve no motion). Dynamic stretches affect dynamic flexibility and static stretches affect static flexibility (and dynamic flexibility to some degree).

The different types of stretching are:
1. ballistic stretching
2. dynamic stretching
3. active stretching
4. passive (or relaxed) stretching
5. static stretching
6. isometric stretching
7. PNF stretching

Section: 3.1 Ballistic Stretching

Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body or a limb in an attempt to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is stretching, or "warming up", by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. (e.g. bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of stretching is not considered useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles to adjust to, and relax in, the stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up by repeatedly activating the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]).

Section: 3.2 Dynamic Stretching

"Dynamic stretching", according to Kurz, "involves moving parts of your body and gradually increasing reach, speed of movement, or both." Do not confuse dynamic stretching with ballistic stretching! Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take you (gently!) to the limits of your range of motion. Ballistic stretches involve trying to force a part of the body *beyond* its range of motion. In dynamic stretches, there are no bounces or "jerky" movements. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow, controlled leg swings, arm swings, or torso twists.

Dynamic stretching improves dynamic flexibility and is quite useful as part of your warm-up for an active or aerobic workout (such as a dance or martial-arts class). See Section 4.1 [Warming Up].

According to Kurz, dynamic stretching exercises should be performed in sets of 8-12 repetitions. Be sure to stop when and if you feel tired. Tired muscles have less elasticity which decreases the range of motion used in your movements. Continuing to exercise when you are tired serves only to reset the nervous control of your muscle length at the reduced range of motion used in the exercise (and will cause a loss of flexibility). Once you attain a maximal range of motion for a joint in any direction you should stop doing that movement during that workout. Tired and overworked muscles won't attain a full range of motion and the muscle's kinesthetic memory will remember the repeated shorted range of motion, which you will then have to overcome before you can make further progress.

Section: 3.3 Active Stretching

"Active stretching" is also referred to as "static-active stretching". An active stretch is one where you assume a position and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength of your agonist muscles (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups]). For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there without anything (other than your leg muscles themselves) to keep the leg in that extended position. The tension of the agonists in an active stretch helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists) by reciprocal inhibition (see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal Inhibition]).

Active stretching increases active flexibility and strengthens the agonistic muscles. Active stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and rarely need to be held any longer than 15 seconds.

Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms of yoga are active stretches.

Section: 3.4 Passive Stretching

"Passive stretching" is also referred to as "relaxed stretching", and as "static-passive stretching". A passive stretch is one where you assume a position and hold it with some other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there with your hand. The splits is an example of a passive stretch (in this case the floor is the "apparatus" that you use to maintain your extended position).

Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an injury. Obviously, you should check with your doctor first to see if it is okay to attempt to stretch the injured muscles (see Section 4.12 [Pain and Discomfort]).

Relaxed stretching is also very good for "cooling down" after a workout and helps reduce post-workout muscle fatigue, and soreness. See Section 4.2 [Cooling Down].

Section: 3.5 Static Stretching

Many people use the term "passive stretching" and "static stretching" nterchangeably. However, there are a number of people who make a distinction between the two. According to M. Alter, "Static stretching" consists of stretching a muscle (or group of muscles) to its farthest point and then maintaining or holding that position, whereas "Passive stretching" consists of a relaxed person who is relaxed (passive) while some external force (either a person or an apparatus) brings the joint through its range of motion.

Notice that the definition of passive stretching given in the previous section encompasses *both* of the above definitions. Throughout this document, when the term "static stretching" or "passive stretching" is used, its intended meaning is the definition of passive stretching as described in the previous section. You should be aware of these alternative meanings, however, when looking at other references on stretching.

Section: 3.6 Isometric Stretching

"Isometric stretching" is a type of static stretching (meaning it does not use motion) which involves the resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions (tensing) of the stretched muscles (see Section 1.5 [Types of Muscle Contractions]). The use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to develop increased static-passive flexibility and is much more effective than either passive stretching or active stretching alone. Isometric stretches also help to develop strength in the "tensed" muscles (which helps to develop static-active flexibility), and seems to decrease the amount of pain usually associated with stretching.

The most common ways to provide the needed resistance for an isometric stretch are to apply resistance manually to one's own limbs, to have a partner apply the resistance, or to use an apparatus such as a wall (or the floor) to provide resistance.

An example of manual resistance would be holding onto the ball of your foot to keep it from flexing while you are using the muscles of your calf to try and straighten your instep so that the toes are pointed.

An example of using a partner to provide resistance would be having a partner hold your leg up high (and keep it there) while you attempt to force your leg back down to the ground.

An example of using the wall to provide resistance would be the well known "push-the-wall" calf-stretch where you are actively attempting to move the wall (even though you know you can't).

Isometric stretching is *not* recommended for children and adolescents whose bones are still growing. These people are usually already flexible enough that the strong stretches produced by the isometric contraction have a much higher risk of damaging tendons and connective tissue. Kurz strongly recommends preceding any isometric stretch of a muscle with dynamic strength training for the muscle to be stretched. A full session of isometric stretching makes a lot of demands on the muscles being stretched and should not be performed more than once per day for a given group of muscles (ideally, no more than once every 36 hours).

The proper way to perform an isometric stretch is as follows:

Assume the position of a passive stretch for the desired muscle.
Next, tense the stretched muscle for 7-15 seconds (resisting against some force that will not move, like the floor or a partner).
Finally, relax the muscle for at least 20 seconds.

Some people seem to recommend holding the isometric contraction for longer than 15 seconds, but according to `SynerStretch' (the videotape), research has shown that this is not necessary. So you might as well make your stretching routine less time consuming.

Section: 3.6.1 How Isometric Stretching Works

Recall from our previous discussion (see Section 1.2.1 [How Muscles Contract]) that there is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fiber: when a muscle is contracted, some of the fibers contract and some remain at rest (more fibers are recruited as the load on the muscle increases). Similarly, when a muscle is stretched, some of the fibers are elongated and some remain at rest (see Section 1.6 [What Happens When You Stretch]). During an isometric contraction, some of the resting fibers are being pulled upon from both ends by the muscles that are contracting. The result is that some of those resting fibers stretch!

Normally, the handful of fibers that stretch during an isometric contraction are not very significant. The true effectiveness of the isometric contraction occurs when a muscle that is already in a stretched position is subjected to an isometric contraction. In this case, some of the muscle fibers are already stretched before the contraction, and, if held long enough, the initial passive stretch overcomes the stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]) and triggers the lengthening reaction (see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening Reaction]), inhibiting the stretched fibers from contracting. At this point, according to `SynerStretch', when you isometrically contracted, some resting fibers would contract and some resting fibers would stretch. Furthermore, many of the fibers already stretching may be prevented from contracting by the inverse myotatic reflex (the lengthening reaction) and would stretch even more. When the isometric contraction is completed, the contracting fibers return to their resting length but the stretched fibers would remember their stretched length and (for a period of time) retain the ability to elongate past their previous limit. This enables the entire muscle to stretch beyonds its initial maximum and results in increased flexibility.

The reason that the stretched fibers develop and retain the ability to stretch beyond their normal limit during an isometric stretch has to do with the muscle spindles (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]): The signal which tells the muscle to contract voluntarily, also tells the muscle spindle's (intrafusal) muscle fibers to shorten, increasing sensitivity of the stretch reflex. This mechanism normally maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle as the muscle shortens during contraction. This allows the muscle spindles to habituate (become accustomed) to an even further-lengthened position.

Section: 3.7 PNF Stretching

PNF stretching is currently the fastest and most effective way known to increase static-passive flexibility. PNF is an acronym for "proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation". It is not really a type of stretching but is a technique of combining passive stretching (see Section 3.4 [Passive Stretching]) and isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]) in order to achieve maximum static flexibility. Actually, the term PNF stretching is itself a misnomer. PNF was initially developed as a method of rehabilitating stroke victims. PNF refers to any of several "post-isometric relaxation" stretching techniques in which a muscle group is passively stretched, then contracts isometrically against resistance while in the stretched position, and then is passively stretched again through the resulting increased range of motion. PNF stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide resistance against the isometric contraction and then later to passively take the joint through its increased range of motion. It may be performed, however, without a partner, although it is usually more effective with a partner's assistance.

Most PNF stretching techniques employ "isometric agonist contraction/relaxation" where the stretched muscles are contracted isometrically and then relaxed. Some PNF techniques also employ "isometric antagonist contraction" where the antagonists of the stretched muscles are contracted. In all cases, it is important to note that the stretched muscle should be rested (and relaxed) for at least 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. The most common PNF stretching techniques are:

the "hold-relax"
This technique is also called the "contract-relax". After assuming an initial passive stretch, the muscle being stretched is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds, after which the muscle is briefly relaxed for 2-3 seconds, and then immediately subjected to a passive stretch which stretches the muscle even further than the initial passive stretch. This final passive stretch is held for 10-15 seconds. The muscle is then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.

the "hold-relax-contract"
This technique is also called the "contract-relax-contract", and the
"contract-relax-antagonist-contract" (or "CRAC"). It involves performing two isometric contractions: first of the agonists, then, of the antagonists. The first part is similar to the hold-relax where, after assuming an initial passive stretch, the stretched muscle is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds. Then the muscle is relaxed while its antagonist immediately performs an isometric contraction that is held for 7-15 seconds. The muscles are then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.

the "hold-relax-swing"
This technique (and a similar technique called the "hold-relax-bounce") actually involves the use of dynamic or ballistic stretches in conjunction with static and isometric stretches. It is *very* risky, and is successfully used only by the most advanced of athletes and dancers that have managed to achieve a high level of control over their muscle stretch reflex (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]). It is similar to the hold-relax technique except that a dynamic or ballistic stretch is employed in place of the final passive stretch.

Notice that in the hold-relax-contract, there is no final passive stretch. It is replaced by the antagonist-contraction which, via reciprocal inhibition (see Section 1.6.4 [Reciprocal Inhibition]), serves to relax and further stretch the muscle that was subjected to the initial passive stretch. Because there is no final passive stretch, this PNF technique is considered one of the safest PNF techniques to perform (it is less likely to result in torn muscle tissue). Some people like to make the technique even more intense by adding the final passive stretch after the second isometric contraction. Although this can result in greater flexibility gains, it also increases the likelihood of injury.

Even more risky are dynamic and ballistic PNF stretching techniques like the hold-relax-swing, and the hold-relax-bounce. If you are not a professional athlete or dancer, you probably have no business attempting either of these techniques (the likelihood of injury is just too great). Even professionals should not attempt these techniques without the guidance of a professional coach or training advisor. These two techniques have the greatest potential for rapid flexibility gains, but only when performed by people who have a sufficiently high level of control of the stretch reflex in the muscles that are being stretched.

Like isometric stretching (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching]), PNF stretching is also not recommended for children and people whose bones are still growing (for the same reasons. Also like isometric stretching, PNF stretching helps strengthen the muscles that are contracted and therefore is good for increasing active flexibility as well as passive flexibility. Furthermore, as with isometric stretching, PNF stretching is very strenuous and should be performed for a given muscle group no more than once per day (ideally, no more than once per 36 hour period).

The initial recommended procedure for PNF stretching is to perform the desired PNF technique 3-5 times for a given muscle group (resting 20 seconds between each repetition). However, `HFLTA' cites a 1987 study whose results suggest that performing 3-5 repetitions of a PNF technique for a given muscle group is not necessarily any more effective than performing the technique only once. As a result, in order to decrease the amount of time taken up by your stretching routine (without decreasing its effectiveness), `HFLTA' recommends performing only one PNF technique per muscle group stretched in a given stretching session.

Section: 3.7.1 How PNF Stretching Works

Remember that during an isometric stretch, when the muscle performing the isometric contraction is relaxed, it retains its ability to stretch beyond its initial maximum length (see Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works]). Well, PNF tries to take immediate advantage of this increased range of motion by immediately subjecting the contracted muscle to a passive stretch.

The isometric contraction of the stretched muscle accomplishes several things:

As explained previously (see Section 3.6.1 [How Isometric Stretching Works]), it helps to train the stretch receptors of the muscle spindle to immediately accommodate a greater muscle length.
The intense muscle contraction, and the fact that it is maintained for a period of time, serves to fatigue many of the fast-twitch fibers of the contracting muscles (see Section 1.2.2 [Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers]). This makes it harder for the fatigued muscle fibers to contract in resistance to a subsequent stretch (see Section 1.6.2 [The Stretch Reflex]).
The tension generated by the contraction activates the golgi tendon organ (see Section 1.6.1 [Proprioceptors]), which inhibits contraction of the muscle via the lengthening reaction (see Section 1.6.3 [The Lengthening Reaction]). Voluntary contraction during a stretch increases tension on the muscle, activating the golgi tendon organs more than the stretch alone. So, when the voluntary contraction is stopped, the muscle is even more inhibited from contracting against a subsequent stretch.

PNF stretching techniques take advantage of the sudden "vulnerability" of the muscle and its increased range of motion by using the period of time immediately following the isometric contraction to train the stretch receptors to get used to this new, increased, range of muscle length. This is what the final passive (or in some cases, dynamic) stretch accomplishes.

Olah Raga: Haruskah Dihentikan Selama Ramadan?

2007-09-26T21:39:00.000+07:00

Oleh H.Y.S. Santoso Giriwijoya, Drs. Psi.

DALAM bulan Ramadan, tugas sehari-hari harus tetap kita lakukan seperti biasa. Tidak ada yang menyebutkan kita berhak mendapat keringanan atau menunda pelaksanaan tugas sampai setelah bulan Ramadan berakhir. Kita menjalani puasa atas kemauan sendiri demi ketaatan kita kepada Allah dan Rasul-Nya untuk mendapatkan rahmat-Nya untuk mendapatkan rahmat-Nya. Surat Al Imran ayat 132: ”Taatilah Allah dan Rasul-Nya agar kamu diberi rahmat”. Jadi tidak boleh ada ungkapan misalnya: ”Dalam bulan Ramadan mana mungkin melakukan olah raga? Tugas pekerjaan harus dikurangi dan sebagainya, dan sebagainya! Ungkapan itu menunjukkan bahwa ia ingin mendapatkan keringanan dalam tugas harian sebagai syarat melaksanakan puasa wajib.

Orang bertakwa taat menjalankan perintah Allah tanpa mengajukan syarat apa pun termasuk dalam tugas sehari-hari yang tetap harus kita jalankan adalah memelihara kesehatan melalui olah raga. Demi tetap terpeliharanya kesehatan kita dan memelihara prestasi cabang olah raga yang telah kita miliki.

Bila selama seluruh bulan Ramadan olah raga dihentikan, berakibat menurunnya kemampuan fungsional kita. Ketiadaan gerak selama satu minggu menurunkan kekuatan otot sekira 10-15% dan dalam tiga minggu kapasitas kerja menurun 20%-25%. Mendapatkan kembali apa yang telah hilang memerlukan usaha yang lebih berat dan pada menjaga dan memeliharanya. ”Pemeliharaan kesehatan maupun prestasi olah raga memerlukan pemeliharaan yang bersinambungan”.

Masalah yang terpenting adalah bagaimana mengatur kehidupan selama bulan Ramadan agar tugas sehari-hari tetap dapat dijalankan dan ibadah keagamaan dapat lebih ditingkatkan.

Makan sangat perlu oleh karena makanan adalah sumber daya (energi) untuk kehidupan termasuk untuk bekerja dan berolah raga. Makan minum harus dihentikan antara saat imsak sampai setelah azan magrib. Akan tetapi, untuk dapat melakukan olahraga, penyediaan sumber daya tidak menjadi masalah karena ada makan sahur. Jadi, makan sahur memang sangat perlu ‘kebutuhan kalori + 25-30 Kcal/Kg BB/hari, umumnya dapat dipenuhi dengan baik. Kerawanan yang sering terjadi ialah karena kurangnya pemahaman akan susunan makanan yang seimbang.

Kebutuhan protein 1-2 gram/kg BB/hari, tergantung berat aktivitas fisik sehari-hari. Kandungan protein makanan sehari-hari cukup 15-20%. Protein bukan sumber daya (energi) utama. Sumber daya utama (55-65%) adalah karbohidrat (beras, jagung, ubi, tepung terigu). jadi tidak perlu makan protein berlebihan! sebutir telur ayam beratnya kl. 0,60 gram. Satu atau dua butir telur setengah matang atau matang (lebih mudah dicerna) di samping sumber protein lainnya pada saat makan sahur, sangat mencukupi kebutuhan. Dengan menyertakan sebutir telur sewaktu makan sahur insya Allah segala keluhan yang berhubungan dengan laparnya orang berpuasa tidak akan mengganggu. Akan tetapi, yang lebih penting lagi ialah menjaga jumlah air tubuh dengan cukup banyak minum. Khususnya setelah makan minum saat sahur, tambahkan secara sadar dua gelas air minum. Air merupakan prioritas kehidupan kedua setelah O2, jadi jumlah air tubuh harus selalu cukup. Ginjal memerlukan air untuk dapat berfungsi normal (membuang racun sampah tubuh).

Dari sudur ilmu faal, puasa adalah menggeser waktu makan dari kebiasaan makan pada siang hari menjadi malam hari. Pergeseran waktu makan berakibat pergeseran waktu sekresi liur pencernaan dan hormon olah daya (metabolisme). Pergeseran waktu sekresi tidak mungkin berlangsung seketika bersama dengan dimulainya puasa, tetapi memerlukan waktu, yaitu masa penyesuaian yang berlangsung kl. 3 hari. Oleh karena itu, kecuali 3 hari pertama puasa, dosis olah raga dan tugas pekerjaan tidak perlu dikurangi, jadi lakukanlah olah raga dan tugas pekerjaan tetap seperti biasa!***

(Penulis adalah guru besar ahli ilmu faal dan ilmu faal olah raga)

Section: 2 Flexibility

2007-09-20T19:06:00.000+07:00

Flexibility is defined by Gummerson as "the absolute range of movement in a joint or series of joints that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment." This definition tells us that flexibility is not something general but is specific to a particular joint or set of joints. In other words, it is a myth that some people are innately flexible throughout their entire body. Being flexible in one particular area or joint does not necessarily imply being flexible in another. Being "loose" in the upper body does not mean you will have a "loose" lower body. Furthermore, according to `SynerStretch', flexibility in a joint is also "specific to the action performed at the joint (the ability to do front splits doesn't imply the ability to do side splits even though both actions occur at the hip)."

Section: 2.1 Types of Flexibility

Many people are unaware of the fact that there are different types of flexibility. These different types of flexibility are grouped according to the various types of activities involved in athletic training. The ones which involve motion are called "dynamic" and the ones which do not are called "static". The different types of flexibility (according to Kurz) are:

"dynamic flexibility"
Dynamic flexibility (also called "kinetic flexibility") is the ability to perform dynamic (or kinetic) movements of the muscles to bring a limb through its full range of motion in the joints.

"static-active flexibility"
Static-active flexibility (also called "active flexibility") is the ability to assume and maintain extended positions using only the tension of the agonists and synergists while the antagonists are being stretched (see Section 1.4 [Cooperating Muscle Groups]). For example, lifting the leg and keeping it high without any external support (other than from your own leg muscles).

"static-passive flexibility"
Static-passive flexibility (also called "passive flexibility") is the ability to assume extended positions and then maintain them using only your weight, the support of your limbs, or some other apparatus (such as a chair or a barre). Note that the ability to maintain the position does not come solely from your muscles, as it does with static-active flexibility. Being able to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.

Research has shown that active flexibility is more closely related to the level of sports achievement than is passive flexibility. Active flexibility is harder to develop than passive flexibility (which is what most people think of as "flexibility"); not only does active flexibility require passive flexibility in order to assume an initial extended position, it also requires muscle strength to be able to hold and maintain that position.

Section: 2.2 Factors Limiting Flexibility

According to Gummerson, flexibility (he uses the term "mobility") is affected by the following factors:

* Internal influences

- the type of joint (some joints simply aren't meant to be flexible)

- the internal resistance within a joint

- bony structures which limit movement

- the elasticity of muscle tissue (muscle tissue that is scarred due to a previous injury is not very elastic)

- the elasticity of tendons and ligaments (ligaments do not stretch much and tendons should not stretch at all)

- the elasticity of skin (skin actually has some degree of elasticity, but not much)

- the ability of a muscle to relax and contract to achieve the greatest range of movement

- the temperature of the joint and associated tissues (joints and muscles offer better flexibility at body temperatures that are 1 to 2 degrees higher than normal)

* External influences

- the temperature of the place where one is training (a warmer temperature is more conducive to increased flexibility)

- the time of day (most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm)

- the stage in the recovery process of a joint (or muscle) after injury (injured joints and muscles will usually offer a lesser degree of flexibility than healthy ones)

age (pre-adolescents are generally more flexible than adults)
gender (females are generally more flexible than males)
one's ability to perform a particular exercise (practice makes perfect)
one's commitment to achieving flexibility
the restrictions of any clothing or equipment

Some sources also the suggest that water is an important dietary element with regard to flexibility. Increased water intake is believed to contribute to increased mobility, as well as increased total body relaxation.

Rather than discuss each of these factors in significant detail as Gummerson does, I will attempt to focus on some of the more common factors which limit one's flexibility. According to `SynerStretch', the most common factors are: bone structure, muscle mass, excess fatty tissue, and connective tissue (and, of course, physical injury or disability).

Depending on the type of joint involved and its present condition (is it healthy?), the bone structure of a particular joint places very noticeable limits on flexibility. This is a common way in which age can be a factor limiting flexibility since older joints tend not to be as healthy as younger ones.

Muscle mass can be a factor when the muscle is so heavily developed that it interferes with the ability to take the adjacent joints through their complete range of motion (for example, large hamstrings limit the ability to fully bend the knees). Excess fatty tissue imposes a similar restriction.

The majority of "flexibility" work should involve performing exercises designed to reduce the internal resistance offered by soft connective tissues (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue]). Most stretching exercises attempt to accomplish this goal and can be performed by almost anyone, regardless of age or gender.

Section: 2.2.1 How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility

The resistance to lengthening that is offered by a muscle is dependent upon its connective tissues: When the muscle elongates, the surrounding connective tissues become more taut (see Section 1.3 [Connective Tissue]). Also, inactivity of certain muscles or joints can cause chemical changes in connective tissue which restrict flexibility. According to M. Alter, each type of tissue plays a certain role in joint stiffness: "The joint capsule (i.e., the saclike structure that encloses the ends of bones) and ligaments are the most important factors, accounting for 47 percent of the stiffness, followed by the muscle's fascia (41 percent), the tendons (10 percent), and skin (2 percent)".

M. Alter goes on to say that efforts to increase flexibility should be directed at the muscle's fascia however. This is because it has the most elastic tissue, and because ligaments and tendons (since they have less elastic tissue) are not intended to stretched very much at all. Overstretching them may weaken the joint's integrity and cause destabilization (which increases the risk of injury).

When connective tissue is overused, the tissue becomes fatigued and may tear, which also limits flexibility. When connective tissue is unused or under used, it provides significant resistance and limits flexibility. The elastin begins to fray and loses some of its elasticity, and the collagen increases in stiffness and in density. Aging has some of the same effects on connective tissue that lack of use has.

Section: 2.2.2 How Aging Affects Flexibility

With appropriate training, flexibility can, and should, be developed at all ages. This does not imply, however, that flexibility can be developed at the same rate by everyone. In general, the older you are, the longer it will take to develop the desired level of flexibility. Hopefully, you'll be more patient if you're older.

According to M. Alter, the main reason we become less flexible as we get older is a result of certain changes that take place in our connective tissues. As we age, our bodies gradually dehydrate to some extent. It is believed that "stretching stimulates the production or retention of lubricants between the connective tissue fibers, thus preventing the formation of adhesions". Hence, exercise can delay some of the loss of flexibility that occurs due to the aging process.

M. Alter further states that some of the physical changes attributed to aging are the following:

An increased amount of calcium deposits, adhesions, and cross-links in the body
An increase in the level of fragmentation and dehydration
Changes in the chemical structure of the tissues.
Loss of "suppleness" due to the replacement of muscle fibers with fatty, collagenous fibers.

This does *not* mean that you should give up trying to achieve flexibility if you are old or inflexible. It just means that you need to work harder, and more carefully, for a longer period of time when attempting to increase flexibility. Increases in the ability of muscle tissues and connective tissues to elongate (stretch) can be achieved at any age.

Section: 2.3 Strength and Flexibility

Strength training and flexibility training should go hand in hand. It is a common misconception that there must always be a trade-off between flexibility and strength. Obviously, if you neglect flexibility training altogether in order to train for strength then you are certainly sacrificing flexibility (and vice versa). However, performing exercises for both strength and flexibility need not sacrifice either one. As a matter of fact, flexibility training and strength training can actually enhance one another.

Section: 2.3.1 Why Bodybuilders Should Stretch

One of the best times to stretch is right after a strength workout such as weightlifting. Static stretching of fatigued muscles (see Section 3.5 [Static Stretching]) performed immediately following the exercise(s) that caused the fatigue, helps not only to increase flexibility, but also enhances the promotion of muscular development (muscle growth), and will actually help decrease the level of post-exercise soreness. Here's why:

After you have used weights (or other means) to overload and fatigue your muscles, your muscles retain a "pump" and are shortened somewhat. This "shortening" is due mostly to the repetition of intense muscle activity that often only takes the muscle through part of its full range of motion. This "pump" makes the muscle appear bigger. The "pumped" muscle is also full of lactic acid and other by-products from exhaustive exercise. If the muscle is not stretched afterward, it will retain this decreased range of motion (it sort of "forgets" how to make itself as long as it could) and the buildup of lactic acid will cause post-exercise soreness. Static stretching of the "pumped" muscle helps it to become "looser", and to "remember" its full range of movement. It also helps to remove lactic acid and other waste-products from the muscle. While it is true that stretching the "pumped" muscle will make it appear visibly smaller, it does not decrease the muscle's size or inhibit muscle growth. It merely reduces the "tightness" (contraction) of the muscles so that they do not "bulge" as much.

Also, strenuous workouts will often cause damage to the muscle's connective tissue. The tissue heals in 1 to 2 days but it is believed that the tissues heal at a shorter length (decreasing muscular development as well as flexibility). To prevent the tissues from healing at a shorter length, physiologists recommend static stretching after strength workouts.

Section: 2.3.2 Why Contortionists Should Strengthen

You should be "tempering" (or balancing) your flexibility training with strength training (and vice versa). Do not perform stretching exercises for a given muscle group without also performing strength exercises for that same group of muscles. Judy Alter, in her book `Stretch and Strengthen', recommends stretching muscles after performing strength exercises, and performing strength exercises for every muscle you stretch. In other words: "Strengthen what you stretch, and stretch after you strengthen!"

The reason for this is that flexibility training on a regular basis causes connective tissues to stretch which in turn causes them to loosen (become less taut) and elongate. When the connective tissue of a muscle is weak, it is more likely to become damaged due to overstretching, or sudden, powerful muscular contractions. The likelihood of such injury can be prevented by strengthening the muscles bound by the connective tissue. Kurz suggests dynamic strength training consisting of light dynamic exercises with weights (lots of reps, not too much weight), and isometric tension exercises. If you also lift weights, dynamic strength training for a muscle should occur *before* subjecting that muscle to an intense weightlifting workout. This helps to pre-exhaust the muscle first, making it easier (and faster) to achieve the desired overload in an intense strength workout. Attempting to perform dynamic strength training *after* an intense weightlifting workout would be largely ineffective.

If you are working on increasing (or maintaining) flexibility then it is *very* important that your strength exercises force your muscles to take the joints through their full range of motion. According to Kurz, Repeating movements that do not employ a full range of motion in the joints (like cycling, certain weightlifting techniques, and pushups) can cause of shortening of the muscles surrounding the joints. This is because the nervous control of length and tension in the muscles are set at what is repeated most strongly and/or most frequently.

Section: 2.4 Overflexibility

It is possible for the muscles of a joint to become too flexible. According to `SynerStretch', there is a tradeoff between flexibility and stability. As you get "looser" or more limber in a particular joint, less support is given to the joint by its surrounding muscles. Excessive flexibility can be just as bad as not enough because both increase your risk of injury.

Once a muscle has reached its absolute maximum length, attempting to stretch the muscle further only serves to stretch the ligaments and put undue stress upon the tendons (two things that you do *not* want to stretch). Ligaments will tear when stretched more than 6% of their normal length. Tendons are not even supposed to be able to lengthen. Even when stretched ligaments and tendons do not tear, loose joints and/or a decrease in the joint's stability can occur (thus vastly increasing your risk of injury).

Once you have achieved the desired level of flexibility for a muscle or set of muscles and have maintained that level for a solid week, you should discontinue any isometric or PNF stretching of that muscle until some of its flexibility is lost (see Section 3.6 [Isometric Stretching], and see section 3.7 [PNF Stretching]).

Physiology of Stretching

2007-09-19T20:34:00.000+07:00

by Brad Appleton
http://www.bradapp.net/

The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to some of the basic physiological concepts that come into play when a muscle is stretched. Concepts will be introduced initially with a general overview and then (for those who want to know the gory details) will be discussed in further detail. If you aren't all that interested in this aspect of stretching, you can skip this chapter. Other sections will refer to important concepts from this chapter and you can easily look them up on a "need to know" basis.

The Musculoskeletal System
Muscle Composition
Connective Tissue
Cooperating Muscle Groups
Types of Muscle Contractions
What Happens When You Stretch

The Musculoskeletal System

Together, muscles and bones comprise what is called the musculoskeletal system of the body. The bones provide posture and structural support for the body and the muscles provide the body with the ability to move (by contracting, and thus generating tension). The musculoskeletal system also provides protection for the body's internal organs. In order to serve their function, bones must be joined together by something. The point where bones connect to one another is called a joint, and this connection is made mostly by ligaments (along with the help of muscles). Muscles are attached to the bone by tendons. Bones, tendons, and ligaments do not possess the ability (as muscles do) to make your body move. Muscles are very unique in this respect.

Muscle Composition

Muscles vary in shape and in size, and serve many different purposes. Most large muscles, like the hamstrings and quadriceps, control motion. Other muscles, like the heart, and the muscles of the inner ear, perform other functions. At the microscopic level however, all muscles share the same basic structure.

At the highest level, the (whole) muscle is composed of many strands of tissue called fascicles. These are the strands of muscle that we see when we cut red meat or poultry. Each fascicle is composed of fasciculi which are bundles of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers are in turn composed of tens of thousands of thread-like myofybrils, which can contract, relax, and elongate (lengthen). The myofybrils are (in turn) composed of up to millions of bands laid end-to-end called sarcomeres. Each sarcomere is made of overlapping thick and thin filaments called myofilaments. The thick and thin myofilaments are made up of contractile proteins, primarily actin and myosin.

How Muscles Contract
Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers

How Muscles Contract

The way in which all these various levels of the muscle operate is as follows: Nerves connect the spinal column to the muscle. The place where the nerve and muscle meet is called the neuromuscular junction. When an electrical signal crosses the neuromuscular junction, it is transmitted deep inside the muscle fibers. Inside the muscle fibers, the signal stimulates the flow of calcium which causes the thick and thin myofilaments to slide across one another. When this occurs, it causes the sarcomere to shorten, which generates force. When billions of sarcomeres in the muscle shorten all at once it results in a contraction of the entire muscle fiber.

When a muscle fiber contracts, it contracts completely. There is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fiber. Muscle fibers are unable to vary the intensity of their contraction relative to the load against which they are acting. If this is so, then how does the force of a muscle contraction vary in strength from strong to weak? What happens is that more muscle fibers are recruited, as they are needed, to perform the job at hand. The more muscle fibers that are recruited by the central nervous system, the stronger the force generated by the muscular contraction.

Fast and Slow Muscle Fibers

The energy which produces the calcium flow in the muscle fibers comes from mitochondria, the part of the muscle cell that converts glucose (blood sugar) into energy. Different types of muscle fibers have different amounts of mitochondria. The more mitochondria in a muscle fiber, the more energy it is able to produce. Muscle fibers are categorized into slow-twitch fibers and fast-twitch fibers. Slow-twitch fibers (also called Type 1 muscle fibers) are slow to contract, but they are also very slow to fatigue. Fast-twitch fibers are very quick to contract and come in two varieties: Type 2A muscle fibers which fatigue at an intermediate rate, and Type 2B muscle fibers which fatigue very quickly. The main reason the slow-twitch fibers are slow to fatigue is that they contain more mitochondria than fast-twitch fibers and hence are able to produce more energy. Slow-twitch fibers are also smaller in diameter than fast-twitch fibers and have increased capillary blood flow around them. Because they have a smaller diameter and an increased blood flow, the slow-twitch fibers are able to deliver more oxygen and remove more waste products from the muscle fibers (which decreases their "fatigability").

These three muscle fiber types (Types 1, 2A, and 2B) are contained in all muscles in varying amounts. Muscles that need to be contracted much of the time (like the heart) have a greater number of Type 1 (slow) fibers. When a muscle first starts to contract, it is primarily Type 1 fibers that are initially activated, then Type 2A and Type 2B fibers are activated (if needed) in that order. The fact that muscle fibers are recruited in this sequence is what provides the ability to execute brain commands with such fine-tuned tuned muscle responses. It also makes the Type 2B fibers difficult to train because they are not activated until most of the Type 1 and Type 2A fibers have been recruited.

HFLTA states that the the best way to remember the difference between muscles with predominantly slow-twitch fibers and muscles with predominantly fast-twitch fibers is to think of "white meat" and "dark meat". Dark meat is dark because it has a greater number of slow-twitch muscle fibers and hence a greater number of mitochondria, which are dark. White meat consists mostly of muscle fibers which are at rest much of the time but are frequently called on to engage in brief bouts of intense activity. This muscle tissue can contract quickly but is fast to fatigue and slow to recover. White meat is lighter in color than dark meat because it contains fewer mitochondria.

Connective Tissue

Located all around the muscle and its fibers are connective tissues. Connective tissue is composed of a base substance and two kinds of protein based fiber. The two types of fiber are collagenous connective tissue and elastic connective tissue. Collagenous connective tissue consists mostly of collagen (hence its name) and provides tensile strength. Elastic connective tissue consists mostly of elastin and (as you might guess from its name) provides elasticity. The base substance is called mucopolysaccharide and acts as both a lubricant (allowing the fibers to easily slide over one another), and as a glue (holding the fibers of the tissue together into bundles). The more elastic connective tissue there is around a joint, the greater the range of motion in that joint. Connective tissues are made up of tendons, ligaments, and the fascial sheaths that envelop, or bind down, muscles into separate groups. These fascial sheaths, or fascia, are named according to where they are located in the muscles:

endomysium
The innermost fascial sheath that envelops individual muscle fibers.

perimysium
The fascial sheath that binds groups of muscle fibers into individual fasciculi (see section Muscle Composition).

epimysium
The outermost fascial sheath that binds entire fascicles (see section Muscle Composition).

These connective tissues help provide suppleness and tone to the muscles.

Cooperating Muscle Groups

When muscles cause a limb to move through the joint's range of motion, they usually act in the following cooperating groups:

agonists
These muscles cause the movement to occur. They create the normal range of movement in a joint by contracting. Agonists are also referred to as prime movers since they are the muscles that are primarily responsible for generating the movement.

antagonists
These muscles act in opposition to the movement generated by the agonists and are responsible for returning a limb to its initial position.

synergists
These muscles perform, or assist in performing, the same set of joint motion as the agonists. Synergists are sometimes referred to as neutralizers because they help cancel out, or neutralize, extra motion from the agonists to make sure that the force generated works within the desired plane of motion.

fixators
These muscles provide the necessary support to assist in holding the rest of the body in place while the movement occurs. Fixators are also sometimes called stabilizers.

As an example, when you flex your knee, your hamstring contracts, and, to some extent, so does your gastrocnemius (calf) and lower buttocks. Meanwhile, your quadriceps are inhibited (relaxed and lengthened somewhat) so as not to resist the flexion (see section Reciprocal Inhibition). In this example, the hamstring serves as the agonist, or prime mover; the quadricep serves as the antagonist; and the calf and lower buttocks serve as the synergists. Agonists and antagonists are usually located on opposite sides of the affected joint (like your hamstrings and quadriceps, or your triceps and biceps), while synergists are usually located on the same side of the joint near the agonists. Larger muscles often call upon their smaller neighbors to function as synergists.

The following is a list of commonly used agonist/antagonist muscle pairs:

pectorals/latissimus dorsi (pecs and lats)
anterior deltoids/posterior deltoids (front and back shoulder)
trapezius/deltoids (traps and delts)
abdominals/spinal erectors (abs and lower-back)
left and right external obliques (sides)
quadriceps/hamstrings (quads and hams)
shins/calves
biceps/triceps
forearm flexors/extensors

Types of Muscle Contractions

The contraction of a muscle does not necessarily imply that the muscle shortens; it only means that tension has been generated. Muscles can contract in the following ways:

isometric contraction
This is a contraction in which no movement takes place, because the load on the muscle exceeds the tension generated by the contracting muscle. This occurs when a muscle attempts to push or pull an immovable object.

isotonic contraction
This is a contraction in which movement does take place, because the tension generated by the contracting muscle exceeds the load on the muscle. This occurs when you use your muscles to successfully push or pull an object.

Isotonic contractions are further divided into two types:

concentric contraction
This is a contraction in which the muscle decreases in length (shortens) against an opposing load, such as lifting a weight up.

eccentric contraction
This is a contraction in which the muscle increases in length (lengthens) as it resists a load, such as lowering a weight down in a slow, controlled fashion.

During a concentric contraction, the muscles that are shortening serve as the agonists and hence do all of the work. During an eccentric contraction the muscles that are lengthening serve as the agonists (and do all of the work). See section Cooperating Muscle Groups.

What Happens When You Stretch

The stretching of a muscle fiber begins with the sarcomere (see section Muscle Composition), the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fiber. As the sarcomere contracts, the area of overlap between the thick and thin myofilaments increases. As it stretches, this area of overlap decreases, allowing the muscle fiber to elongate. Once the muscle fiber is at its maximum resting length (all the sarcomeres are fully stretched), additional stretching places force on the surrounding connective tissue (see section Connective Tissue). As the tension increases, the collagen fibers in the connective tissue align themselves along the same line of force as the tension. Hence when you stretch, the muscle fiber is pulled out to its full length sarcomere by sarcomere, and then the connective tissue takes up the remaining slack. When this occurs, it helps to realign any disorganized fibers in the direction of the tension. This realignment is what helps to rehabilitate scarred tissue back to health.

When a muscle is stretched, some of its fibers lengthen, but other fibers may remain at rest. The current length of the entire muscle depends upon the number of stretched fibers (similar to the way that the total strength of a contracting muscle depends on the number of recruited fibers contracting). According to SynerStretch you should think of "little pockets of fibers distributed throughout the muscle body stretching, and other fibers simply going along for the ride". The more fibers that are stretched, the greater the length developed by the stretched muscle.

Proprioceptors
The Stretch Reflex
The Lengthening Reaction
Reciprocal Inhibition

Proprioceptors

The nerve endings that relay all the information about the musculoskeletal system to the central nervous system are called proprioceptors. Proprioceptors (also called mechanoreceptors) are the source of all proprioception: the perception of one's own body position and movement. The proprioceptors detect any changes in physical displacement (movement or position) and any changes in tension, or force, within the body. They are found in all nerve endings of the joints, muscles, and tendons. The proprioceptors related to stretching are located in the tendons and in the muscle fibers.

There are two kinds of muscle fibers: intrafusal muscle fibers and extrafusal muscle fibers. Extrafusil fibers are the ones that contain myofibrils (see section Muscle Composition) and are what is usually meant when we talk about muscle fibers. Intrafusal fibers are also called muscle spindles and lie parallel to the extrafusal fibers. Muscle spindles, or stretch receptors, are the primary proprioceptors in the muscle. Another proprioceptor that comes into play during stretching is located in the tendon near the end of the muscle fiber and is called the golgi tendon organ. A third type of proprioceptor, called a pacinian corpuscle, is located close to the golgi tendon organ and is responsible for detecting changes in movement and pressure within the body.

When the extrafusal fibers of a muscle lengthen, so do the intrafusal fibers (muscle spindles). The muscle spindle contains two different types of fibers (or stretch receptors) which are sensitive to the change in muscle length and the rate of change in muscle length. When muscles contract it places tension on the tendons where the golgi tendon organ is located. The golgi tendon organ is sensitive to the change in tension and the rate of change of the tension.

The Stretch Reflex

When the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle (see section Proprioceptors). The muscle spindle records the change in length (and how fast) and sends signals to the spine which convey this information. This triggers the stretch reflex (also called the myotatic reflex) which attempts to resist the change in muscle length by causing the stretched muscle to contract. The more sudden the change in muscle length, the stronger the muscle contractions will be (plyometric, or "jump", training is based on this fact). This basic function of the muscle spindle helps to maintain muscle tone and to protect the body from injury.

One of the reasons for holding a stretch for a prolonged period of time is that as you hold the muscle in a stretched position, the muscle spindle habituates (becomes accustomed to the new length) and reduces its signaling. Gradually, you can train your stretch receptors to allow greater lengthening of the muscles.

Some sources suggest that with extensive training, the stretch reflex of certain muscles can be controlled so that there is little or no reflex contraction in response to a sudden stretch. While this type of control provides the opportunity for the greatest gains in flexibility, it also provides the greatest risk of injury if used improperly. Only consummate professional athletes and dancers at the top of their sport (or art) are believed to actually possess this level of muscular control.

Components of the Stretch Reflex

The stretch reflex has both a dynamic component and a static component. The static component of the stretch reflex persists as long as the muscle is being stretched. The dynamic component of the stretch reflex (which can be very powerful) lasts for only a moment and is in response to the initial sudden increase in muscle length. The reason that the stretch reflex has two components is because there are actually two kinds of intrafusal muscle fibers: nuclear chain fibers, which are responsible for the static component; and nuclear bag fibers, which are responsible for the dynamic component.

Nuclear chain fibers are long and thin, and lengthen steadily when stretched. When these fibers are stretched, the stretch reflex nerves increase their firing rates (signaling) as their length steadily increases. This is the static component of the stretch reflex.

Nuclear bag fibers bulge out at the middle, where they are the most elastic. The stretch-sensing nerve ending for these fibers is wrapped around this middle area, which lengthens rapidly when the fiber is stretched. The outer-middle areas, in contrast, act like they are filled with viscous fluid; they resist fast stretching, then gradually extend under prolonged tension. So, when a fast stretch is demanded of these fibers, the middle takes most of the stretch at first; then, as the outer-middle parts extend, the middle can shorten somewhat. So the nerve that senses stretching in these fibers fires rapidly with the onset of a fast stretch, then slows as the middle section of the fiber is allowed to shorten again. This is the dynamic component of the stretch reflex: a strong signal to contract at the onset of a rapid increase in muscle length, followed by slightly "higher than normal" signaling which gradually decreases as the rate of change of the muscle length decreases.

The Lengthening Reaction

When muscles contract (possibly due to the stretch reflex), they produce tension at the point where the muscle is connected to the tendon, where the golgi tendon organ is located. The golgi tendon organ records the change in tension, and the rate of change of the tension, and sends signals to the spine to convey this information (see section Proprioceptors). When this tension exceeds a certain threshold, it triggers the lengthening reaction which inhibits the muscles from contracting and causes them to relax. Other names for this reflex are the inverse myotatic reflex, autogenic inhibition, and the clasped-knife reflex. This basic function of the golgi tendon organ helps to protect the muscles, tendons, and ligaments from injury. The lengthening reaction is possible only because the signaling of golgi tendon organ to the spinal cord is powerful enough to overcome the signaling of the muscle spindles telling the muscle to contract.

Another reason for holding a stretch for a prolonged period of time is to allow this lengthening reaction to occur, thus helping the stretched muscles to relax. It is easier to stretch, or lengthen, a muscle when it is not trying to contract.

Reciprocal Inhibition

When an agonist contracts, in order to cause the desired motion, it usually forces the antagonists to relax (see section Cooperating Muscle Groups). This phenomenon is called reciprocal inhibition because the antagonists are inhibited from contracting. This is sometimes called reciprocal innervation but that term is really a misnomer since it is the agonists which inhibit (relax) the antagonists. The antagonists do not actually innervate (cause the contraction of) the agonists.

Such inhibition of the antagonistic muscles is not necessarily required. In fact, co-contraction can occur. When you perform a sit-up, one would normally assume that the stomach muscles inhibit the contraction of the muscles in the lumbar, or lower, region of the back. In this particular instance however, the back muscles (spinal erectors) also contract. This is one reason why sit-ups are good for strengthening the back as well as the stomach.

When stretching, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is relaxed than to stretch a muscle that is contracting. By taking advantage of the situations when reciprocal inhibition does occur, you can get a more effective stretch by inducing the antagonists to relax during the stretch due to the contraction of the agonists. You also want to relax any muscles used as synergists by the muscle you are trying to stretch. For example, when you stretch your calf, you want to contract the shin muscles (the antagonists of the calf) by flexing your foot. However, the hamstrings use the calf as a synergist so you want to also relax the hamstrings by contracting the quadricep (i.e., keeping your leg straight).

Strength Adaptations.

2007-09-07T21:40:00.000+07:00

from Curtin University of Technology
http://physiotherapy.curtin.edu.au/resources/educational-resources

Neural mechanisms are the most important determinants of strength adaptations.

Proposition for Debate - by Amanda Broughton

Statement of the Topic

Neural mechanisms are the most important determinants of strength adaptations.

Introduction

This debate addresses factors influencing an increase in muscle strength. This debate can be simply affirmed by the fact that we have all witnessed improvement in performance of a repeated strength test without evidence of muscle hypertrophy. Two definitions to clarify any misunderstandings are:

Strength
"The greatest amount of force that muscles can produce in a single maximal effort" (Lamb, 1984).
Neural mechanisms
"motor unit activation (recruitment, discharge rate), synchronization, and cross education" (Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993).

Literature suggests that physical training causes adaptations in the brain and spinal cord and that the ability of humans to recruit motor units increases with training (Lamb, 1984). Neural factors involved in muscle strength are: activation of motor units (frequency and quantity), involvement of afferent and efferent pathways, synchronization, and cross-education.

In addition to neural factors, we must consider other factors involved in muscle strength. Increased muscle cross sectional area (CSA) has a strong relationship with muscle strength (Lamb, 1984). Muscle length, rate of change of muscle length, and the alignment of the muscle with respect to the axis of joint rotation (Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993) are also involved in determining the strength of a muscle upon testing.

Background Knowledge

MVIC

Considering all factors influencing muscle strength, it is important to ensure that a standard test procedure is used to evaluate muscle strength. As such, a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) is the preferred option (Rutherford and Jones, 1986, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993). This minimizes the influence of neural components associated with muscle co-ordination, and removes influence from rate of change of a muscle. It also requires that muscle length and joint position are the same for each test. Mechanical and electromyographic (EMG) measurements are taken during the contraction to evaluate changes to the neuromuscular apparatus. EMG measurements are used as an indicator of motor unit activity, which gives an indication of the muscle force generated (Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993. Komi (1986) points out that the EMG recordings do not indicate whether the increased motor unit activity comes from the cortical or reflex sources, or from both.

EMG

Lawrence and DeLuca (1983, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993), suggest that EMG measurements during a MVIC are known to be somewhat unreliable. Howard and Enoka (1991, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993) found that on three repetitions of a knee extensor MVIC the average EMG varied substantially while the force remained constant. The authors therefore cautioned against using EMG as a direct representation of the activation of motor units of a muscle at high forces such as during an MVIC. The EMG recordings from surface electrodes are a result of summation of randomly occurring action potentials from numerous motor units. According to an unpublished dissertation by Fuglevand (1989, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993, p222), a motor unit action potential is influenced by:

the number and size of fibers innervated by the motor unit,
the spatial orientation of the fibers relative to the electrode,
the electrode configuration and dimensions,
the conduction velocity of the fiber action potential,
the spatial relationship of the electrode to the innervation zone, and the length of the muscle fibers.

Neural Mechanisms

Figure 2 (Lamb, 1984)

Figure 1
(Plowman and Smith, 1997)

The motor unit consists of the motor nerve cell (neuron) that originates in the spinal cord (indicated by '3' in figure 1) and all the muscle fibers it supplies. All fibers in a motor neuron are of the same fiber type and are distributed throughout the muscle (Lamb, 1984). Slow twitch fibers are usually recruited first, and once a motor unit is activated, all muscle fibers in that unit are activated equally. To modulate muscle force, motor units change their firing frequency, and the number of active motor units changes. The motor units do not all fire in unison, except under conditions of maximal stimulation. "The CNS remains capable of fully activating all motor units to respond with maximum force under conditions of extreme contractile failure" (Thomas, Woods, and Bigland-Ritchie 1989, p. 1835, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993).

A motor unit is influenced by reflex pathways, muscle spindle input, input from higher and lower spinal cord levels, and from nerves on the opposite side of the cord as shown in figure 2 (Lamb, 1984). According to Enoka and Fuglevand (1993) many authors suggest that facilitation of the MVIC is due to the descending command being supplemented with afferent feedback. Komi (1986) suggests that training intensity must be periodically varied and/or progressively increased to maintain an increase in maximal neural activation. During detraining, or immobilisation, the neural input is decreased resulting in a decreased force production and muscle atrophy.

Research Findings

Muscle Strength

Significant gains in muscle strength have been shown following short periods of resistance training, which are generally regarded as being too short to elicit morphological changes in the muscle (Moritani and deVries, 1979). It would therefore seem that this strength increase is due to an ability to better activate the muscle. Over time the muscle activation plateaus and CSA increases, suggesting that after a time, hypertrophy is the more significant factor in increased strength. Various suggestions regarding these two factors are explored below. (See Figure 3).

Neural Adaptation

"Neural adaptation after resistance training has been inferred on the basis of several studies reporting increases in muscle strength with little or no change in cross sectional area of the muscle." (Bandy et al, 1990, p.252). Most research into neural adaptations after resistance training looks mainly at motor unit activation by using EMG. It is widely accepted that increases in EMG is a result of increased firing frequency of motor units in combination with an increased recruitment of motor units.

Cross-education

Cross education is evidenced by an increased strength in the contralateral limb and is likely due to cross talk between nerves in the spinal cord from one side to the other. Moritani and deVries (1979) reported an increase in MVIC force of 36% in isometrically trained elbow flexors versus a 25% increase in the contralateral untrained limb. The changes in the untrained limb occurred without changes in CSA or enzyme activities. Butler and Darling (1990, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993) found an increase in EMG in the contralateral untrained limb. Subjects have exhibited a lower single limb MVIC when both limbs are active simultaneously than when tested in isolation (Howard and Enoka, 1991, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993). It could be postulated that this is due to cross talk from the contralateral side during a single limb effort that is not present to the same extent during a bilateral task.

Research Update - New Findings

Central Nervous System

Increases in strength have been shown when a subject shouts during exertion, or if a pistol is fired near the subject shortly before the test procedure (Ikai and Steinhaus, 1961, cited in Lamb, 1984). Similar strength changes have also been noted when the subject is given hypnotic suggestions of strength (Morgan, 1972, cited in Lamb, 1984). Yue and Cole (1992, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993) observed an increase in MVIC and EMG following imagery.

Electrical stimulation

It has been shown that a voluntary contraction is not a strong as a contraction stimulated electrically (Ikai and Yabe, 1969, cited in Lamb, 1984, and Stephens and Taylor, cited in Lamb, 1984).

Electrical stimulation - training

It has been shown that strength development can be achieved through electrical stimulation of a muscle, however the strength gains from this method of training are less than those noted in a voluntary training program (Massey, 1964, cited in Moritani and deVries, 1979, and Nowakowska, 1962, cited in Moritani and deVries, 1979). This is likely due to the lack of involvement of the motor pathways in electrically stimulated training. Lyle and Rutherford (1998) however, found no significant difference between strength gains in adductor pollicis of voluntary versus stimulated contractions. The large gains shown in stimulated training argues against central adaptations as a major contributor to the strength increases following training.

EMG

In most studies, the EMG/force slope initially remained the same as in the pre-trial testing with an increase in muscle activation (EMG values). After a few weeks resistance training the EMG slope started to decrease, indicating muscle hypertrophy gradually becoming integrated in the strength increase and the rapidly increasing muscle activation slowed to a lesser rate. (See figure 3)

Disproportionate CSA increase

After a number of weeks of resistance training, an increase in CSA can be measured. This increase is proportionally smaller than the increase in MVIC (Narici et al, 1989, cited in Enoka and Fuglevand, 1993). Nonetheless, CSA is the single best predictor of muscle strength. Larger muscles have a greater amount of actin and myosin, therefore a greater number of cross bridges, which results in a greater potential for force production during contraction.

Motor Unit Synchronisation

Strength training can increase motor unit synchronization. Friedeboldet et al (1957, cited in Komi, 1986) was among the first to suggest that, in particular, the early part of strength training is associated with an increase in motor unit synchronization. Komi goes on to suggest two possible explanations for this increased synchronization.

The dendrites of alpha-motor neurons receive increased input from sensory fibers, and
The higher motor centers increase their descending activity.

Specificity

Rasch and Morehouse (1957, cited in Moritani and deVries, 1979) demonstrated strength gains from a six-week training program in tests where muscles were used in a familiar way, but not when unfamiliar test procedures were involved. This suggests that larger test results were mainly due to skill acquisition.

Muscle Hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy seems mostly to result after training periods greater than six weeks, and is predominantly related to fast rather than slow twitch fibers (Bandy et al, 1990). Komi (1986) suggests that the increased alpha-motor neuron activation with motor neuron synchronization may stimulate hypertrophic factors that are expected to result after a period of progressively increasing strength training.

Figure 4 Figure 4
(Moritani and deVries, 1979)

Figure 3 Figure 3
(Plowman and Smith, 1997)

Clinical Implications

When considering a resistance training program, it is important to understand what you are improving at various stages of the program. Initially improvement will be due to neural adaptation. To maximise this potential, the program needs to be modified and/or progressed regularly so that neural adaptation does not plateau too soon. It is also necessary to consider the phenomenon of specificity. The muscle will improve in performing the task it is trained to do, there is minimal crossover to other tasks, and so a variety of contraction modes and joint positions will need to be employed for a more comprehensive program. Ensure that the task that is being trained will have functional relevance for day-to-day living. After a time hypertrophy will become evident. To maintain muscle strength and bulk, the training program needs to continue and be progressed and modified.

The phenomenon of bilateral deficit needs to be considered. A muscle can generate a greater force if worked in isolation. Unilateral training will therefore result in a more rapid strength increase than a bilateral task. Considering specificity, it may be necessary to train both ways.

Conclusion

Initial changes to muscle strength are due to neural factors (motor unit activation, firing frequency, input from the opposite side of the spinal cord, input from muscle spindles and reflexes, input from lower and higher spinal cord levels). Over time, the increased rate of neural activation decreases to a slower rate and muscle hypertrophy commences (this is postulated to be stimulated by the neural system). The muscle CSA increases with continued training. This also results in increased strength. The CSA does not increase to the same extent as the muscle strength. The total strength increase is a combination of increased neural activation and muscle hypertrophy.

References

Bandy WD, Lovelace-Chandler V, and McKitrick-Bandy B (1990), Adaptation of skeletal muscle to resistancetraining. Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy 12(6):248-255
Enoka RM and Fuglevand AJ (1993), Chapter 8: Neuromuscular basis of the maximum voluntary forcecapacity of muscle. In Grabnier MD (Ed): Current issues in Biomechanics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books.
Komi PV (1986), Training of muscle strength and power: interaction of neuromotoric, hypertrophic, and mechanical factors. International Journal of Sports Medicine 7:10-15
Lamb DR (1984), Physiology of Exercise: Responses and Adaptations (2nd ed). New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.
Lyle N and RutherfordOM (1998), A comparison of voluntary versus stimulated strength training of the human adductor pollicis muscle. Journal of Sports Sciences 16(3):267-270 (Abstract only viewed)
Moritani T and deVries HA (1979), Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of musclestrength gain. American Journal of Physical Medicine 58(3):115-130
Plowman SA and Smith DL (1997), Exercise Physiology: For Health, Fitness, and Performance. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
DeschenesMR, Maresh CM, and Kraemer WJ (1994), The neuromuscular junction: structure, function, and its role in the excitation of muscle. Journal of Strengthand Conditioning Research 8(2):103-109
Higbie EJ, CuretonKJ, Warren GL, and Prior BM (1996), Effects of concentric and eccentrictraining on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation.Journal of Applied Physiology 81(5):2173-2181
Enoka RM (1988), Musclestrength and its development. New perspectives. Sports Medicine 6(3):146-168
Seger JY, Arvidsson B, and Thorstensson A (1998), Specific effects of eccentric and concentric training on muscle strength and morphology in humans. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology 79(1):49-57
Zhou S (2000), Chronicneural adaptations to unilateral exercise: mechanisms of cross education. Exerciseand Sports Science Reviews 8(4):177-184

Muscle Memory

2007-09-04T09:52:00.000+07:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Muscle memory is a common term for neuromuscular facilitation, which is the process of the neuromuscular system memorizing motor skills.

Overview

When an active person trains movement, often of the same activity, in an effort to stimulate the mind’s adaptation process, the end result is to induce a physiological change such as increased levels of accuracy through repetition. Even though the process is really brain-muscle memory or what some call motor memory, the nickname muscle memory is commonly used.

Individuals rely upon the mind’s ability to assimilate a given activity and adapt to the training. As the brain and muscle adapts to training, the subsequent changes are a form or representation of its muscle memory.

There are two types of motor skills involved in muscle memory, fine and gross. Fine motor skills are very minute and small skills we perform with our hands such as brushing the teeth, combing the hair, using a pencil or pen to write, typing and even playing video games. Gross motor skills are those actions that require large body parts and large body movements like throwing sports (bowling, American football, baseball), golfing, swimming, tennis, driving a car, and archery.[citation needed]

Muscle memory is fashioned over time through repetition of a given motor skill and the ability through brain activity to remember it. Activities such as brushing the teeth, combing the hair, or even driving a vehicle are not as easy as they look to the beginner. As one reinforces those movements day after day after day, the neural system learns those fine and gross motor skills to the degree that one no longer needs to think about them, but merely to react and to perform.

When one picks up a hair brush, one automatically has a certain motion, style, number of strokes, and amount of pressure as the hair is brushed without requiring conscious thought about each movement. Other forms of rather elaborate motions that have become automatic include speech. As one speaks, one usually does not consciously think about the complex tongue movements, synchronisation with vocal cords and various lip movements that are required to produce phonemes, because of muscle memory. In speaking a language that is not one's native language, one typically speaks with an accent, because one's muscle memory is tuned to forming the phonemes of one's native language, rather than those of the language one is speaking. An accent can be eliminated only by carefully retraining the muscle memory.[citation needed]

Physiology

Muscle memory starts with a visual cue. A classic example are chords while playing instruments such as the piano or guitar. The beginner must think and interpret these chords, but after repetition, the letters and symbols on the page become cues to the muscle movements. As the brain processes the information about the desired activity and motion such as a golf swing, one then commits to that motion thought as correct. Over time, the accuracy and skills in performing the swing or movement improve.

Muscle memory is the control center of the movement. In maximizing muscle memory to learn a new motion, practicing that same motion over a long enough period makes it become automatic. This learning process could take months, even years, to perfect, depending on the individual's dedication to practice, and their unique biochemical neuromuscular learning system to retain that practice.

In detail, inside the brain are neurons that produce impulses, which carry tiny electrical currents. These currents cross the synapses between neurons with chemical transporters called neurotransmitters to carry the communication. Neurotransmitters are the body’s communicative mechanisms and one of their many functions is to travel through the central nervous system and carry the signal from visual cue to the muscle for the contraction.

Although there are many types of neurotransmitters, the communicative ones primarily used in muscle memory is acetylcholine and the other is serotonin.

Acetylcholine is the major neurotransmitter used in memory, focus, concentration, and muscle memory. It is the substance that transports messages from one nerve cell to another. Acetylcholine is critical to the process of creating and remembering the muscle contraction. It achieves this through motor neurons.

Serotonin is imperative in the muscle memory process. Serotonin has multiple physiological actions at neuromuscular junctions where communication crosses over. This includes facilitation of transmitter release from nerve terminals and an increase in the communication to muscle fibers.

When a motor neuron depolarizes, an electrical current is passed down the nerve fiber and the impulse causes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to be released to the muscle cell. Acetylcholine then binds with receptors on the muscle membrane to create the contraction. Over time, with acetylcholine the brain-muscle learns the chosen motion and induces its own form of memory. This process is also called neuromuscular facilitation. Once muscle memory is created and retained, there is no longer need to actively think about the movement and this frees up capacity for other activities.

Proprioception

2007-09-04T09:41:00.000+07:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Proprioception (PRO-pree-o-SEP-shun (IPA pronunciation: [ˈpɹopɹiːoˌsɛpʃən]); from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own" and perception) is the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body. Unlike the six exteroceptive senses (sight, taste, smell, touch, hearing, and balance) by which we perceive the outside world, and interoceptive senses, by which we perceive the pain and the stretching of internal organs, proprioception is a third distinct sensory modality that provides feedback solely on the status of the body internally. It is the sense that indicates whether the body is moving with required effort, as well as where the various parts of the body are located in relation to each other. The Position-Movement sensation was originally described in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger as a 'sense of locomotion'. Much later in 1826 Charles Bell expounded the idea of a 'muscle sense' and this is credited with being one of the first physiologic feedback mechanisms. Bell's idea was that commands were being carried from the brain to the muscles, and that reports on the muscle's condition would be sent in the reverse direction. Later, in 1880, Henry Charlton Bastian suggested 'kinaesthesia' instead of 'muscle sense' on the basis that some of the afferent information (back to the brain) was coming from other structures including tendon, joints, skin, and muscle. In 1889, Alfred Goldscheider suggested a classification of kinaesthesia into 3 types: muscle, tendon, and articular sensitivity. In 1906, Sherrington published a landmark work which introduced the terms 'proprioception' 'interoception', and 'exteroception'. The 'exteroceptors' being the organs responsible for information from outside the body such as the eyes, ears, mouth, and skin. The interoceptors then gave information about the internal organs, while 'proprioception' was awareness of movement derived from muscular, tendon, and articular sources. Such a system of classification has kept physiologists and anatomists searching for specialised nerve endings which transmit data on joint capsule and muscle tension (such as muscle spindles and Pacini corpuscles).

Proprioception vs. kinesthesia

Kinesthesia is another term that is often used interchangeably with proprioception. Some users differentiate the kinesthetic sense from proprioception by excluding the sense of equilibrium or balance from kinesthesia. An inner ear infection, for example, might degrade the sense of balance. This would degrade the proprioceptive sense, but not the kinesthetic sense. The infected person would be able to walk, but only by using the person's sense of sight to maintain balance; the person would be unable to walk with eyes closed. Proprioception and kinaesthesia are seen as interrelated and there is considerable disagreement regarding the definition of these terms. Some of this difficulty stems from Sherrington's original description of joint position sense (or the ability to determine where a particular body part exactly is in space) and kinaesthesia (or the sensation that the body part has moved) under a more general heading of proprioception. Clinical aspects of proprioception are measured in tests that measure a subject's ability to detect an externally imposed passive movement, or the ability to reposition a joint to a predetermined position. Often it is assumed that the ability of one of these aspects will be related to another, unfortunately experimental evidence suggests there is no strong relation between these two aspects. This suggests that while these components may well be related in a cognitive manner, they seem to be separate physiologically. Much of the forgoing work is dependent on the notion that proprioception is essentially a feedback mechanism: that is the body moves (or is moved) and then the information about this is returned to the brain whereby subsequent adjustments could be made. More recent work into the mechanism of ankle sprains suggest that the role of reflexes may be more limited due to their long latencies (even at the spinal cord level) as ankle sprain events occur in perhaps 100msec or less. Accordingly, a model has been proposed to include a 'feedforward' component of proprioception where the subject will also have central information about the body's position prior to attaining it.

Kinesthesia is a key component in muscle memory and hand-eye coordination and training can improve this sense (see blind contour drawing). The ability to swing a golf club, or to catch a ball requires a finely-tuned sense of the position of the joints. This sense needs to become automatic through training to enable a person to concentrate on other aspects of performance, such as maintaining motivation or seeing where other people are.

Basis of proprioceptive sense

The proprioceptive sense is believed to be composed of information from sensory neurons located in the inner ear (motion and orientation) and in the stretch receptors located in the muscles and the joint-supporting ligaments (stance). There are specific nerve receptors for this form of perception, just as there are specific receptors for pressure, light, temperature, sound, and other sensory experiences, known as adequate stimuli receptors.

Although it was known that finger kinesthesia relies on skin sensation, recent research has found that kinesthesia-based haptic perception strongly relies on the forces experienced during touch. This research allows the creation of "virtual", illusory haptic shapes with different perceived qualities.

Law enforcement

Proprioception is tested by American police officers using the field sobriety test where the subject is required to touch his or her nose with eyes closed. People with normal proprioception may make an error of no more than 20 millimetres. People suffering from impaired proprioception (a symptom of moderate to severe alcohol intoxication) fail this test due to difficulty locating their limbs in space relative to their noses.

Learning

Proprioception is what allows someone to learn to walk in complete darkness without losing balance. During the learning of any new skill, sport, or art, it is usually necessary to become familiar with some proprioceptive tasks specific to that activity. Without the appropriate integration of proprioceptive input, an artist would not be able to brush paint onto a canvas without looking at the hand as it moved the brush over the canvas; it would be impossible to drive an automobile because a motorist would not be able to steer or use the foot pedals while looking at the road ahead; a person could not touch type or perform ballet; and people would not even be able to walk without watching where they put their feet.

Oliver Sacks once reported the case of a young woman who lost her proprioception due to a viral infection of her spinal cord. At first she was not able to move properly at all or even control her tone of voice (as voice modulation is primarily proprioceptive). Later she relearned by using her sight (watching her feet) and vestibulum (or inner ear) only for movement while using hearing to judge voice modulation. She eventually acquired a stiff and slow movement and nearly normal speech, which is believed to be the best possible in the absence of this sense. She could not judge effort involved in picking up objects and would grip them painfully to be sure she didn't drop them.

Training

The proprioceptive sense can be sharpened through study of many disciplines. The Alexander Technique uses the study of movement to enhance kinesthetic judgment of effort and location. Juggling trains reaction time, spatial location, and efficient movement. Standing on a wobble board or balance board is often used to retrain or increase proprioception abilities, particularly as physical therapy for ankle or knee injuries. Standing on one leg (stork standing) and various other body-position challenges are also used in such disciplines as Yoga or Wing Chun. In addition, the slow, focused movements of Tai Chi practice provide an environment whereby the proprioceptive information being fed back to the brain stimulates an intense, dynamic "listening environment" to further enhance mind / body integration. Several studies have shown that the efficacy of these types of training is challenged by closing the eyes, because the eyes give invaluable feedback to establishing the moment-to-moment information of balance.

Impairment

Apparently, temporary loss or impairment of proprioception may happen periodically during growth, mostly during adolescence. Growth that might also influence this would be large increases or drops in bodyweight/size due to fluctuations of fat (liposuction, rapid fat loss, rapid fat gain) and muscle content (bodybuilding, anabolic steroids, catabolisis/starvation). It can also occur to those who gain new levels of flexibility, stretching, and contortion. A limb's being in a new range of motion never experienced (or at least, not for a long time since youth perhaps) can disrupt one's sense of location of that limb. Possible experiences include these: suddenly feeling that feet or legs are missing from one's mental self-image; needing to look down at one's limbs to be sure they are still there; and falling down while walking, especially when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.

Proprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. One's body may appear too large or too small, or parts of the body may appear distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras. These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body.

Proprioceptive illusions can also be induced, such as the Pinocchio illusion.

The proprioceptive sense is often unnoticed because humans will adapt to a continuously-present stimulus; this is called habituation, desensitization, or adaptation. The effect is that proprioceptive sensory impressions disappear, just as a scent can disappear over time. One practical advantage of this is that unnoticed actions or sensation continue in the background while an individual's attention can move to another concern. The Alexander Technique addresses these issues.

People who have a limb amputated may still have a confused sense of that limb existence on their body, known as Phantom Limb Syndrome. Phantom sensations can occur as passive proprioceptive sensations of the limb's presence, or more active sensations such as perceived movement, pressure, pain, itching, or temperature. The etiology of the phantom limb phenomenon was disputed in 2006, but some consensus existed in favour of neurological (e.g. neural signal bleed across a preexisting sensory map, as posited by V.S. Ramachandran) over psychological explanations. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, such as after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain), or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).

Temporary impairment of proprioception has also been known to occur from an overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine and pyridoxamine). Most of the impaired function returns to normal shortly after the intake of vitamins returns to normal. Impairment can also be caused by cytotoxic factors such as chemotherapy.

It has been proposed that even common Tinnitus and the attendant hearing frequency-gaps masked by the perceived sounds may cause erroneous proprioceptive information to the balance and comprehension centers of the brain, precipitating mild confusion.

Proprioception is permanently impaired in patients who suffer from joint hypermobility or Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome (a genetic condition that results in weak connective tissue throughout the body). It can also be permanently impaired from viral infections as reported by Sacks. The catastrophic effect of major proprioceptive loss is reviewed by Robles-De-La-Torre (2006).

References

Robles-De-La-Torre G, Hayward V (2001). "Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch". Nature 412 (6845): 445-8. PMID 11473320.
the MIT Technology Review article "The Cutting Edge of Haptics"
Sacks, O. The Disembodied Lady, in The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and his autobiographical case study A Leg To Stand On.
Ehrsson H, Kito T, Sadato N, Passingham R, Naito E (2005). "Neural substrate of body size: illusory feeling of shrinking of the waist". PLoS Biol. 3 (12): e412. PMID 16336049.
Robles-De-La-Torre G. The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments. IEEE Multimedia 13(3), Special issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24–30 (2006).

Power

2007-09-03T09:27:00.000+07:00

Curtin University of Technology

Power is the most important factor in assessing a person's capacity for performance in sport!

Proposition for Debate - by Rahul Madan

Statement of the Topic

Power is the most important factor in assessing a person's capacity for performance in sport!

Power: Definition and Types

Power and physical performance have been closely related and investigated by various investigators using different protocols. The ability of an athlete to produce high forces at high velocity is an important component of the physical performance and functional capacity. There is no agreement in the literature over the definition of power. However, power has been defined as the product of force (or torque) and velocity, ie, rate of doing work (Thomas et al 1997). It is of two types, aerobic or endurance and anaerobic.

According to Brukner and Khan (2001), power is the equivalent of explosive strength. Young and Bilby (1993) have used the term "speed-strength" synonymous with power. Paavolaienen et al (1999) have suggested that muscle power is the ability of neuromuscular system to produce power during maximal exercise when glycolytic and oxidative energy production is high and muscle contractility may be limited.

Schmidtbleicher (1992) has defined power as the ability of neuromuscular system to produce greatest possible impulse in a given time period, which depends on resistance of the load, and organisation of the acceleration. The latter parameter is influenced by the sport played by the athlete. There are others factors as well, which are pertinent for power generation. The exploration of these factors is important for understanding the alterations in the power production under different conditions.

Factors Influencing Power

Maximal velocity of shortening has a significant influence on power output. It is dependent on intrinsic speed of the muscle contraction. The proportion of the muscle fibre type and length of the muscle determine the maximal velocity. Type-I muscle fibres generate less power than type-II. Muscle shorter in length has few sarcomeres in series and hence, generates less power. Maximal velocity can not be changed by training.

Maximal isometric strength is directly proportional to power output. Determination of appropriate external resistance for maximum power can be used to establish adequate training stimulus to train muscle power. There is controversy in the literature as to maximum external resistance against which muscle power can be generated. According to Thomas et al (1997), training to improve maximal power output should be done at 56-78% of the maximum dynamic strength. Although there is no agreement for the various training protocols to achieve this objective but cross sectional area and neural adaptations of muscles in response to training must be addressed.

Muscle strength and power are inseparable variables and have direct confluence on physical performance. According to Sale (1991), muscle strength is the peak force developed during a maximal voluntary contraction under a given set of conditions. These conditions comprise of speed of movement, posture, and patterns and mode of contraction. The role of different modes of muscle contraction like isometric, isotonic and isokinetic, and their relation with power has not been accounted for and is beyond the scope of this debate.

Neuromuscular characteristics as a determinant of power and hence, physical performance was interpellated by Paavolainen et al (1999). They found that force-time characteristics differed with different muscle fibre types. Force output of muscle contraction was reported to depend on the rate and force of myofibrillar cross-bridge cycle activity, and effective storage and release of elastic energy during stretch - shortening cycle.

Anaerobic characteristics have also been reported to impair muscle contraction on the inchoation of fatigue which results in increased H+ ion concentration and increased blood lactate concentration thereby impeding muscles' physiological process (Paavolainen et al 1999).

Power and physical performance

Paavolaienen et al (1999) investigated neuromuscular characteristics and their relation with muscle power and physical performance. The important findings are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Correlation coefficients for the selected aerobic power and running economy variables and the distance and treadmill running performance. (p <>
	VO2 max demand	RE track	RE tread	VO2 max	RCT
V5k	0.78	-0.69	-0.53	0.56	0.74
VO2 max demand	1	-0.66	-0.57	0.57	0.73

V5k: mean velocity of 5 km trial
VO2 max demand: peak treadmill running performance expressed as maximal O2 demand
VO2 max: treadmill max O2 uptake
RCT: respiratory compensation threshold

Paavolaienen et al (1999) found that peak treadmill running performance was a good predictor of track running performance. There was a significant correlation between V5k and VO2 max demand .Maximal velocity of maximal anaerobic running test was found to be significantly correlated with V5k. Therefore, maximal velocity of maximal anaerobic running test was reported to be a staunch implicit indicator of muscle power.

Chelly et al (2001) have reported a significant correlation between the maximal track running velocity and treadmill velocity (r=0.84, p < r="0.62,">

According to Thomas et al (1996) who studied the relation of leg power with the body composition, strength and function in young women; double leg press showed a significant correlation with vertical jump (R2 = 0.584, p <>

Controversies and Loopholes

There was a lack of a comprehensive, precise and absolute definition of power in the literature. There was no agreement over the methods of assessing power and various physical performances. There was a variable subject population with inhomogeniety evident in their sports, level of involvement in sports, age, body composition and stature. There is also a paucity of evidence in the literature for reliable and valid techniques for power evaluation. Some studies could have used better study design to answer the hypothesis.

The key components like muscle strength were acknowledged but not assessed in some studies. Few outcome variables, which were utilised to assess power, were not accepted as gold standard. Following examples are quoted in favour of above-mentioned controversies and loopholes.

Thomas et al (1997) recruited sedentary untrained female subjects in their study. Hence, the results can not be generalised to elite population. Two different kinds of equipment were utilised to assess muscle power namely, double leg press and leg extensor power rig. Given that the two machines used to evaluate power involved the similar group of muscles, there was no agreement between two outputs. It may be because double leg press measures the power output through the full range of motion and requires the subject to overcome the initial inertia of the flywheel to which it is attached. On the other hand, leg extensor power rig uses pneumatic piston and evaluates the individual�s ability to generate power internally against a relatively low resistance. Muscle strength was not assessed though it has been mentioned to be the key component of power development.

There was an oversimplification of assumptions by Chelly et al (2001) in calculating hopping stiffness by spring mass model. This model did not account for harmonic oscillation during running performance. They also considered leg muscle volume to be an indicator of muscle strength and muscle power, which is in contrast to the findings of Maylia et al (1999).

Maylia et al (1999) conducted a study on 11 subjects and measured thigh muscle bulk, and knee extensor and flexor peak torque using an isokinetic dynamometer. They reported that there was no correlation between muscle power and thigh girth individually or as a group. Chelly et al (2001) failed to address the issue of muscle strength and its relationship with power. They used simple ergometric treadmill to evaluate and assess muscle power rather than accurate equipment like high-speed cameras and long force platforms used by other investigators. It could have biased the power assessment allowing the error factor to influence the final results.

Conclusion

Muscle power & physical performance are inseparable, mutually related entities, which can be used to assess an athlete's physical performance in sports. However, there is a lack of agreement in the literature over the power being the most important factor in assessing a person's capacity for performance in sport.

References

Brukner P and Khan K (2001): Clinical Sports Medicine. (2nd ed.) McGraw-Hill Book Co. Sydney
Chelly SM and Denis C (2001): Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33:326-333.
Maylia E, Fairclough JA, Nokes LD and Jones MD(1999): Can muscle power be estimated from thigh bulk measurements? A preliminary study. Journal of Sports Rehabilitation 8:50-59.
Paavolainen LM, Numella AT and Rusko HK (1999): Neuromuscular characteristics and muscle power as determinants of 5-km running performance.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 31:124-130.
Sale D (1991): Testing strength and power. In J MacDougall, H Wegner and H.Green (eds), Physiological Testing of the High Performance Athlete (2nd ed.). (pp21-106). Champaign: Human Kinetics Publishers.
Schmidtbleicher D (1992): Training for power events. In P. Komi (Ed.) Strength and Power in Sport, Vol 3, IOC Medical Commision Publication.
Thomas M, Fiatarone MA and Fielding RA (1997): Leg power in young women: relationship to body composition, strength, and function. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 29:1321-1326.
Young WB and Bilby GE (1993): The effect of voluntary effort to influence speed of contraction on strength, muscular power, and hypertrophy development. Journal of Strength Conditioning 7:172-172.

A Survey Of Elbow Injuries In Badminton Players

2007-09-03T09:04:00.000+07:00

The Internet Journal of Orthopedic Surgery ^TM 1531-2968

Mansour Azarbal, MD
Assistant Professor , Head
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Iman Hossein Medical Center
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences
Tehran Iran

Dariush Adybeik, MD
Clinical Researcher
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Iman Hossein Medical Center
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences
Tehran Iran

Hossein Ettehad, MD
Senior Resident of Orthopaedic surgery
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery
Iman Hossein Medical Center
Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences
Tehran Iran

Mirhadi Arash Kia, MD
General Director
Frontierless Researchers Institute
Citation:

Mansour Azarbal, Dariush Adybeik, Hossein Ettehad, Mirhadi Arash Kia: A Survey Of Elbow Injuries In Badminton Players. The Internet Journal of Orthopedic Surgery. 2004. Volume 2 Number 1.

Abstract

We evaluated 124 male badminton players training in Tehran Badminton Association's courts. We evaluated the medical and sports history of all the players. The badminton players mean age was 23.8 years (10-52 years). 17.7% of the players had the history of medial elbow injury and 9.7% of the players had the history of lateral elbow injury. The mean of total duration of training badminton was 1688.4 hours (26-7120 hours). We could not find that the total duration of training had a role in the occurrence of medial or lateral elbow injuries. Also, we did not find that the hours of training per week had a role in the occurrence of medial or lateral elbow injuries.
Introduction

Badminton is an individual, non-contact sport requiring jump, lunges, quick changes in direction, rapid arm movements and also rapid and repetitive wrist movement. Injuries about the elbow are common in racquet sports and are most often related to overuse. Lateral and medial elbow pains are two main elbow symptoms. Medial elbow pain is related to medial epicondylitis, ulnar nerve injury, medial collateral ligament injury, medial elbow intra-articular pathology, or any combination of these causes. The source of lateral elbow pain is often lateral epicondylitis or rarely degenerative changes in radiocapitellar joint or radial tunnel syndrome ( 1 ).

Studies reporting the elbow injuries in badminton players are sparse and also very few studies has been carried out regarding the relation between hours of training badminton and occurrence of elbow injuries. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of medial and lateral elbow injuries in badminton players training in Tehran Badminton Association's courts and also to describe the relation between hours of training badminton and the occurrence of medial or lateral elbow injury.

Material and Methods

We evaluated 124 male badminton players who were members of Tehran Badminton Association. We interviewed and took medical and sports history of all the players. The standard records included: age, total time of training badminton, hours of training badminton per week, history of medial elbow injury (medial elbow pain) and history of lateral elbow injury (lateral elbow pain), the time of onset of medial elbow pain and the time of onset of lateral elbow injury. Our definition for elbow injury was the player's expression of history of elbow pain. The exclusion criteria was: 1-Playing in addition to badminton other racquet sports, boating, gym, golf and polo 2-Players who were typist, carpenter or painter 3-Players who were training noticeably irregularly 4- Players with history of elbow pain before onset of training badminton.

A computer using SPSS software analyzed the data. Statistical analysis was carried out using Chi-square and t-tests and correlation coefficients. Significance was considered if lower than 0.05 in all tests. Helsinky was promised in all stages of the study.

Results

The badminton players mean age was 23.8 years (10-52 years). See figure 1 for age distribution in badminton players. 22 players (17.7%) had the history of medial elbow pain.12 players (9.7%) had the history of lateral elbow pain (figure 2). The mean hours of training per week was 6.7 hours and the mean hours of training per week for those with history of medial elbow pain was 7.1 hours and for those with history of lateral elbow pain was 9.4 hours (p>0.05). The mean of total duration of training badminton was 1688.4 hours (26-7120 hours) and in those with history of medial elbow pain the mean of total duration of training badminton calculated from onset of training badminton to onset of medial elbow pain was 1502.5 hours and in those without history of lateral elbow pain was 1490.7 hours and also in those with history of lateral elbow pain the mean of total duration of training badminton calculated from onset of training badminton to onset of lateral elbow pain was 2138.5 hours and in those without history of lateral elbow pain was 1423.6 hours (p>0.05 for all).We found out that with every 500 hour training time increment the incidence of medial elbow injury was significantly different (Chi-square=0.000) but without any correlation. Also, with every 500 hour training time increment the incidence of lateral elbow injury was significantly different (Chi-square=0.000) but without any correlation.

Discussion

In our study, we found that 17.7% of badminton players had a history of medial elbow pain during training reflecting a history of medial elbow injury including medial epicondylitis, ulnar nerve injury, medial collateral ligament injury, medial elbow intra-articular pathology, or any combination of these causes However we could not define exactly the type of the injury. Also, in our study, we found that 9.7% of badminton players had a history of lateral elbow pain during training reflecting a history of lateral elbow injury including lateral epicondylitis, degenerative changes in radiocapitellar joint or radial tunnel syndrome. However we could not define exactly the type of the injury. In contrast to previous studies, we found that the prevalence of elbow injuries is more prevalent than reported and also medial elbow injury is more common than lateral elbow injury ( 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ). The reason for finding more elbow injuries may result from the nature of our study that we interviewed all the players in the sports club not like most of previous studies visiting players with injury in sports clinics.

We did not find that the total duration of training had a role in the occurrence of either medial nor lateral elbow injuries. Also, we did not find that the hours of training per week played a role in the occurrence of neither medial nor lateral elbow injuries. Kluger R, Stiegler H and Engel A in their study in Vienna, Austria found that the incidence of acute badminton injuries increased constantly from the onset of training ( 9 ) but in our study we did not find that the incidence of medial or lateral elbow injuries increase constantly from the onset of training. It occurred at any time irrelevant to the total duration of training.

We suggest that more studies, especially prospective studies, have to be carried out in order to define exactly the type of elbow injuries with considerable attention to physical examination of the upper extremities. Also, it has to be mentioned that we did not have regularly access to female players training badminton.

References

1. Field LD, Altchek DW. Elbow injuries. Clin Sports Med. 1995 Jan; 14(1):59-78.

2. Hensley LD, Paup DC.A survey of badminton injuries. Br J Sports Med. 1979 Dec; 13(4): 156-60.

3. Kroner K, Schmidt SA, Nielsen AB, Yde J, Jakobsen BW, Moller-Madsen B, Jensen J. Badminton injuries. Br J Sports Med. 1990 Sep; 24(3): 169-72.

4. Hoy K, Lindblad BE , Terkelsen CJ, Helleland HE, Terkelsen CJ. Badminton injuries- a prospective epidemiological and socioeconomic study. Br J Sports Med. 1994 Dec; 28(4): 276-9.

5. Fahlstrom M, Bjornstig U, Lorentzon R. Acute badminton injuries. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1998 Jun; 8(3): 145-8.

6. Jorgensen U, Winge S. Injuries in badminton. Sports Med. 1990 Jul; 10(1): 59-64.

7. Jorgensen U, Winge S. Epidemiology of badminton injuries. Int J Sports Med. 1987 Dec; 8(6):379-82

8. Chard MD, Lachmann SM. Racquet sports--patterns of injury presenting to a sports injury clinic.Br J Sports Med. 1987 Dec;21(4):150-3.

9. Kluger R, Stiegler H, Engel A. [Years of training: a new risk factor in acute badminton injuries]Sportverletz Sportschaden. 1999 Dec; 13(4):96-101.

Pendekatan Shadaow Vs Pendekatan Bermain

2007-08-22T15:51:00.000+07:00

EFEKTIVITAS MODEL PEMBELAJARAN DENGAN PENDEKATAN SHADOW DAN PENDEKATAN BERMAIN TERHADAP PERKEMBANGAN KETERAMPILAN DASAR BULUTANGKIS SISWA DI SEKOLAH DASAR
TAHUN 2004

Research Report from LAPTUNILAPP / 2006-10-02 14:17:59
Oleh : Herman T, Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik
Dibuat : 2006-10-02, dengan 1 file

ABSTRAK

Efektivitas Model Pembelajaran dengan Pendekatan Shadow dan Pendekatan Bermain terhadap perkembangan Keterampilan Dasar Bulutangkis Siswa di Sekolah Dasar Tabun 2004. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk memperoleh informasi, mengenai pengembangan keterampilan dasar bulutangkis siswa sekolah dasar melalui model pendekatan shadow dan model pendekatan bermain.

Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode eksperimen dengan desain "pre-test – post test". Sampel yang digunakan siswa Sekolah Dasar Negeri 1 Untoro, Kecamatan Trimurjo, Kabupaten l.ampung Tengah. Sampel berjumlah 45 orang siswa yang dibagi dalam tiga kelompok, yaitu kelompok shadow berjumlah 15 orang, kelompok bermain berjumlah 15 orang dan kelompok kontrol berjumlah 15 orang. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan tes keterampilan dasar konsep Tes MFS.

Hipotesis yang diajukan adalah:

Ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam perkembangan keterampilan dasar bulutangkis melalui pendekatan shadow;
Ada perbedaan yang signifikan dalam perkembangan keterampilan dasar bulutangkis melalui pendekatan bermain;
Secara keseluruhan pendekatan shadow lama efektifnya dengan pendekatan bermain dalam meningkatkan keterampilan dasar bulutangkis untuk siswa sekolah dasar.

Teknik analisis: pengujian hipotesis dilakukan dengan t-test, dan U-test Mann Whitney.

Hasil analisis data:

Berdasarkan basil uji t-tes untuk keterampilan dasar bulutangkis `kelompok shadow' diperoleh nilai t hitung sebesar 8,05 yang lebih besar dari t tabel (1,75). Hal ini berarti keterampilan dasar bulutangkis siswa sekolah dasar `kelompok shadow' berkembang setelah mengikuti pembelajaran bulutangkis dengan pendekatan shadow. Pada `kelompok bermain' diperoleh t hitung sebesar 5,34 yang lebih besar dari t tabel (1,75). Hal ini berarti keterampilan dasar bulutangkis siswa sekolah dasar 'kelompok bermain' berkembang setelah mengikuti pembelajaran bulutangkis dengan pendekatan bermain.

Pada `kelompok kontrol' diperoleh t hitung sebesar 1,04 yang lebih kecil dart t tabel (1,75). Hal ini berarti keterampilan dasar bulutangkis siswa sekolah dasar `kelompok kontrol' tidak ada perkembangan.

Hasil uji perbandingan dengan Mann-Whitney menunjukkan bahwa kelompok shadow diperoleh nilai U hitung sebesar 45 yang lebih kecil daripada U tabel (127). Sedangkan pada kelompok bermain diperoleh U hitung sebesar 194,50 yang lebih besar daripada U tabel (127). Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pendekatan shadow lebih baik daripada pendekatan bermain.

Hasil uji perbandingan dengan Mann-Whitney menunjukkan bahwa kelompok bermain diperoleh nilai U hitting sebesar 29 yang lebih kecil daripada U tabel (127). Sedangkan pada kelompok kontrol diperoleh U hitung sebesar 236 yang lebih besar daripada U tabel (127). Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa pendekatan bermain lebih baik daripada kelompok kontrol.

Badminton Footwork Clip

2007-08-06T23:16:00.000+07:00

A BADMINTON PRAYER

2007-07-31T15:52:00.000+07:00

By: Henry C. Daut

LORD, bless me as I step into the COURT
to play the game of BADMINTON.

Allow me to have a good GRIP of the racket
I will hold and the game I will play.
Guide my every STEP as
I move to cover every SHOT.
Help me to deliver the best SERVICE
to my fellowmen.
Be it SHORT, LONG or even just a FLICK
a second.
Give me the strength to CLEAR the way
to reach greater heights.
The power to SMASH all barriers that try to block
the way to success.
Grant that I may have the courage to RECEIVE
the blows that may come my way.
Increase my desire to DRIVE forward
despite some failures.
Let me not DROP my guard and become
complacent because of little victories.
Instead give me the speed to rush forward
to NET greater results and
for the KILL to score.

Not just in the game of BADMINTON,
but more importantly in the
real game of LIFE.
Make every victory a reminder of bigger
and stronger challenges ahead.
Let every defeat become a learning experience
that there is more to learn to become better
and that I can also savor the joy of winning
if I work hard to improve my game.

Help me to understand that the person on the other side
of the net is not just an opponent that I have to beat
but a partner that will bring out my best in the contest.

Finally, help me Lord to learn not just the lessons
of the game but more importantly, the lessons of life
that I may become an excellent badminton player,
but more significantly a better person in life.
Amen.

Contributed by Henry Daut.

PPLP Hanya Jalan Pintas

2007-07-12T16:42:00.000+07:00

Oleh: Yunas Santhani Azis
Kompas, 26 Juli 2005

Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar merupakan jalan pintas untuk memperoleh atlet berprestasi yang dirancang dalam keadaan darurat. Bila ini diteruskan tanpa perbaikan sistem pendidikan jasmani secara keseluruhan, program PPLP tersebut ujung-ujungnya hanya menjadi proyek tanpa ujung.

Itulah kritik pedas yang dilontarkan Ketua Lembaga Penelitian Fakultas Ilmu Olahraga, Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Syarifudin dalam sebuah perbincangan pada Jumat pekan lalu.

Keras atau lunak, sembarangan atau santun, yang jelas apa yang disampaikan Syarifudin langsung menusuk persoalan inti upaya Indonesia menuju prestasi olahraga puncakâ€”yang sayang, tidak kunjung sampai.

Persoalan pokok tersebut sesungguhnya dapat disimak dari pernyataan Deputi Pemberdayaan Olahraga Menteri Negara Pemuda dan Olahraga Djohar Arifin Husin tentang Pusat Pendidikan dan Latihan Pelajar (PPLP). â€Filosofi PPLP harus dikembalikan pada semangat awal Ragunan. Filosofi dasarnya adalah atlet potensial yang disekolahkan,â€ katanya (Kompas, 18/7).

Atlet (anak, pelajar) potensial dimasukkan dalam PPLP! Pertanyaannya, siapa dan bagaimana menentukan si anak itu berpotensi menjadi atlet berprestasi tinggi, yang bahasa kerennya high performance athlete? Jawabnya, tentu saja guru-guru dan pelajaran pendidikan jasmani sekolah.

Orientasi pendidikan jasmani (PJ) adalah perkembangan fisik, motorik, psikis, dan sikap anak. Kalau dilakukan dengan benar, anak akan mempunyai tingkat keterampilan gerak yang baik, ujar Syarifudin. Dengan orientasi seperti itu, gurulah agen yang dapat melihat apakah seorang anak berbakat atau tidak untuk mencapai jenjang prestasi tinggi.

Syarifudin mengingatkan, pengamatan terhadap bakat seseorang adalah sebuah proses berkelanjutan yang tak mungkin dilakukan sepotong-sepotong. Pakar ilmu olahraga modern, Tudor Bompa, yang buah pikirannya luas diterapkan, juga tidak menjamin seorang anak yang menjuarai sebuah pertandingan adalah seorang yang berbakat.

Olahraga Jerman

Satu setengah tahun sebelumnya, pakar olahraga Jerman, Hans-Peter Thumm, sudah menegaskan hal senada. Dari empat tujuan pendidikan jasmani yang disampaikannya, butir terakhir adalah sebagai identifikasi fondasi bakat-bakat berbagai cabang olahraga (Tabel 1).

Mengutip teori, Thumm yang selama empat bulan di medio akhir 2003 mengamati pelaksanaan pendidikan jasmani di sekolah dasar dan menengah Indonesia, maksimum cuma tiga sampai lima persen dari populasi anak sekolah yang mempunyai potensi motorik yang memenuhi syarat untuk masuk dalam olahraga prestasi (high performance sport) dewasa ini.

Begitu kecilnya sehingga hanya sekolah yang punya kualitas pendidikan jasmani harian bagus yang dapat memberi guru dan pemandu bakat kesempatan untuk mengidentifikasi potensi motorik sesungguhnya. Menurut Thumm pula, banyak penelitian membuktikan secara luas hubungan yang erat antara standar prestasi olahraga sebuah negara dan tingkat pendidikan jasmaninya (Tabel 2).

Kurikulum baru

Sejak tahun 2000, Indonesia sudah memperkenalkan kurikulum pendidikan jasmani yang baru. Kurikulum itu tidak lagi menekankan pada kecabangan olahraga, tetapi pada pengajaran gerak dasar yang mengacu pada pendekatan jangka panjang. Tahap pengajaran keterampilan gerak disesuaikan dengan masa pertumbuhan dan perkembangan fisik dan psikologis seorang anak (Tabel 3).

Kurikulum seperti itu sesungguhnya sejalan dengan pikiran Thumm yang melihat pendidikan jasmani sekolah haruslah berkonsentrasi pada kebugaran secara keseluruhan. Itu karena 95 persen anak didik yang merupakan mayoritas bukanlah individu yang punya potensi motorik cemerlang untuk menuju olahraga prestasi tinggi.

Pendidikan jasmani haruslah berorientasi pada terbentuknya dengan baik perkembangan fisik, motorik, menjadikan olahraga sebagai sarana pembelajaran sosial amat penting dalam membentuk manusia yang paham, taat aturan, bertanggung jawab, membentuk karakter yang kuat, dan menghargai serta menerima perbedaan (Tabel 4).

Hanya dengan pelaksanaan pendidikan jasmani yang benar pula tercipta motivasi berolahraga terus-menerus, baik untuk prestasi ataupun gaya hidup. Dalam bahasa Nugroho, pengajar Fakultas Ilmu Olahraga Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, pelaksanaan pendidikan jasmani yang bagus melahirkan minat tinggi sekaligus memunculkan para siswa yang memang berbakat pada cabang-cabang tertentu.

Siapa peduli?

Beres? Tidak! Justru di sini kelemahan Indonesia. Menurut Syarifudin, begitu bertumpuk persoalan dihadapi guru dan program pendidikan jasmani sekolah yang membuat tidak tercapainya orientasi ideal pendidikan jasmani.

Persoalan pertama adalah kompetensi guru-guru jasmani sekolah. Dalam seminar badmini Mei lalu, Syarifudin menjelaskan sulitnya para guru mengimplementasikan kurikulum pendidikan jasmani tahun 2000 lebih jauh.

Di tingkat sekolah dasar, hampir semua guru olahraga adalah guru kelas yang hanya memperoleh kursus pendidikan jasmani selama enam bulan. Beban yang dihadapi berbanding terbalik dengan apa yang disiapkan pada mereka: murid berumur 7 sampai 10 tahun adalah usia-usia kritis dalam perkembangan gerak.

Latar belakang mereka bahkan ada yang dari PGA (Pendidikan Guru Agama). Di tingkat yang lebih tinggi (guru SMP dan SMA), guru dihadapkan pada persoalan-persoalan kesejahteraan diri dan keluarga, kata Syarifudin.

Persoalan kedua adalah cerita klasik lainnya, fasilitas pendidikan jasmani yang minim. Ketiga, kepedulian yang kecil terhadap pendidikan jasmani baik dari birokrat, kepala sekolah, maupun guru-guru itu sendiri.

Sudahkah pemerintah dan birokrasi peduli bila mengingat pendidikan jasmani di sekolah hanya diajarkan selama dua jam pelajaran setiap minggunya? Padahal, jelas Syarifudin, seperenam dari 24 jam waktu yang dimiliki oleh manusia yang ada dalam masa pertumbuhan haruslah untuk pengayaan proses belajar. Adakah yang peduli dengan guru-guru pendidikan jasmani kita? Apa ada institusi yang mengurusi mereka? Tidak ada, kata Syarifudin.

Kesimpulannya, membangun olahraga Indonesia yang kuat tidak bisa terlaksana tanpa pembenahan tiga hal tersebut, kompetensi guru-guru pendidikan jasmani harus dibangun dan ditingkatkan dengan serius, fasilitas pendidikan jasmani dan kepedulian terhadap pendidikan jasmani juga merupakan syarat yang tak dapat ditawar.

A Talk with Tudor Bompa

2007-07-12T16:07:00.004+07:00

by Mike Mahler
www.t-nation.com

Tudor Bompa is known to many as the man who single-handedly revolutionized Western training methods. After more than forty years of work in the arena of international sports, he's widely considered one of the world's leading specialists when it comes to periodization, planning, peaking, and strength and power training. Name your favorite strength coach and very likely he's been strongly influenced by the work of Tudor Bompa.

Like many top coaches, Bompa began as an athlete himself and competed as a rower in the 1956 Olympic Games. As a coach (if one can even use that limiting term to describe him), Bompa has worked with athletes in eleven Olympic Games and World Championships, and has helped create four gold medals and 22 national champions. He's presented his training theories is over 30 countries.

In other words, this guy knows his stuff!

Currently, Bompa is a full-time professor at York University in Toronto Ontario. Luckily, he took the time to sit down to an interview with T-mag.

Testosterone: How did you first get interested in strength training?

Tudor Bompa: My athletic background is in track and field, and later on I got into rowing and cross country skiing. I was amongst the first athletes to incorporate a great deal of strength training into training for skiing. That was back in the early 1960's! My improvements were so visible that many other competitors were aghast. Because of my gains in upper and lower-body strength, I was able to use the skating technique for many parts of the race. Equally important was the use of my superior force in the arms.

T: How did you first begin coaching the things you learned as an athlete?

TB: The most critical innovations in the approach to strength training came in 1963 when I was asked to train a nationally ranked javelin thrower. Her coach had moved to another city and I was the only person who could train her. I have to mention that at that time, as is the case today in many sports, athletes were training year-round only for power, using some free weights but also a great deal of medicine ball training. Before I started to train this athlete in early 1963, I'd logically concluded that power is a function of maximum strength [he highest force one can display in one attempt or 1RM], as well as speed and quickness of action. While speed has more genetic limitations than strength, I had decided to look for improved power by increasing maximum strength to the highest possible levels.

As I continued to train this thrower, I also continuously monitored and tested both speed and quickness and maximum strength. After a year and a half of training her, I found out that gains in power come 95% from gains in maximum strength, and only 5% from speed. That year represented the year when I created periodization of strength. Using this strength training strategy, my javelin thrower improved by 15 meters within a year and a half. She became the Olympic champion in 1964 and set a new world record as well.

T: You've written a great deal about periodization and its application in strength training. In your terms, what exactly is periodization?

TB: In the case of training, periodization has two elements. First, periodization of the annual plan, or how this type of plan is divided into specific phases of training. Therefore we have the preparatory, competitive, and transition phase. These phases are further subdivided into macrocycles and microcycles.

Second, periodization of motor abilities — strength, speed, and endurance. In order to maximize the development of these abilities, another kind of "periodization" exists, with specific training phases and training objectives. In case of periodization of strength, the sequence of these phases are: Anatomical Adaptation (AA phase), Maximum Strength Phase, and conversion (transformation) of such gains into power.

Periodization represents a clear structure to follow and is thus the most effective way to improve athletic performance.

T: What are some of the most common mistakes that athletes make with regard to training?

TB: This question is really big! I'll try to provide a brief answer. The first problem is the influence of bodybuilding on strength training for sports. Many people believe that strength is proportional to size.

T: Not true?

TB: Completely incorrect! Hypertrophy is necessary only in very few sports, such as linebackers in football, shot putters in track and field, the super heavy-weight category in wrestling, or if an individual is far too slim. In such a case, the periodization of strength has to include three to six, or even nine weeks of training for hypertrophy. For any other athletes, bodybuilding methods are completely useless!

Sports do not require mass! Sports require power, quickness, and fast application of force. Bodybuilding methods do not result in increasing power. On the contrary, bodybuilding methods make the athletes much slower. And this is a no-no in most of the sports that require quickness and acceleration in force application.

T: Okay, what's another major mistake you see?

TB: The fallacy of Olympic weightlifting exercises! There are several strength coaches with Olympic lifting backgrounds. Unfortunately for them, they can't adjust their knowledge to the needs of strength training for sports. Strength training programs for sports must recognize that almost each sport involves different and specific muscle groups. These muscles are called "prime movers" or the muscles performing the actual technical moves. Therefore, strength training exercises have to target the prime movers. The Olympic lifting exercises are rigidly targeting only certain muscle groups, often not very important for many sports.

T: Give us an example of what you mean.

TB: Take judo for instance. Once I listened to a presentation regarding strength training for judo. The speaker was your typical Olympic lifting coach. He went over snatches and the clean and jerk! When the organizers asked my opinion, I simply said that the whole idea is wrong because judo involves primarily the flexor muscles of the hips, abdominals, and trunk, not the extensors normally targeted by Olympic lifting moves. The lifting coach became very upset when he heard me say this and left the room!

The exact same thing happened with swimming. An Olympic lifting coach once again suggested (what else?) the clean and jerk and the snatch. I pointed out that he was really missing the actual prime movers used in swimming, the arms flexors. The coach's exercises were targeting exactly the opposite group of muscles, the extensors. How difficult is to understand such a basic concept in sports training? Personally I'd use power cleans only for few sports such as linebackers in football and Greco-roman wrestling. I'd use clean and jerks for basketball players, performed with a medicine ball or a power ball.

This leads to another problem. The Olympic lifting coaches are using their own periodization, specific to Olympic lifting. Well, how much common sense does one need to have in order to understand that the Olympic lifting coaches have to adapt their training methodology to the periodization of that particular sport and not the other way around?

T: Good point. Any other mistakes you see that drive you nuts?

TB: Many athletes and coaches use the same type of strength training, irrespective of the physiological requirements their respective sports require. Each sport has its specific physiological profile. The sports where the alactic energy system is dominant are basically sports where speed and power are necessary to achieve high results [jumping and throwing events in track and field, linebackers, baseball, sprinting, etc.]

For sports where the alactic-acid system has a high percentage of ergogenesis, or breakdown in percentage of the three energy systems, it's required that power-endurance and muscle-endurance [30-50 reps per set] be trained. Finally, for endurance-dominant sports, one needs to develop muscle-endurance [tens and even hundreds of reps]. If this isn't achieved, a good adaptation to such training won't occur.

What we see here is a very important training principle — strength training has to play a physiological role; it has to tap the same energy system to add to the specific adaptation to the physiological requirements of a given sport. If one doesn't follow the above principle, he or she is entirely missing the point in strength training. I can strongly state that in athletics there is no strength for strength's sake, but rather just strength training with a specific purpose: maximum adaptation for performance improvement.

T: Are there any strength-training exercises that all athletes should be doing?

TB: Certainly, especially as they target the ankle, knee, and hip muscles. Most sports performed on the ground [all team sports, track, martial arts, etc.] use knee extensors and flexors, and gastrocnemius and soleus for the ankle actions. Therefore squats, leg curls, and toe raises are very popular with most sports.

Although many coaches do use squats and leg curls, toe raises aren't utilized as much as the other two exercises. Somehow they miss the fact that ankles play a very important role in any type of sprinting, quick changes of direction, and any agility actions. In many cases, the gastrocnemius and soleus are stronger than the quadriceps! This is why improvements in quickness and agility will come faster after these two muscles get stronger.

T: How about abs?

TB: Yes, this is equally true with regard to abdominal muscles. Abdominal curls with all variations and rotations are very necessary for all sports. A strong back is also crucial in many sports. Therefore, back extensions should be considered.

As for the arms and shoulders, there are more sports-specific variations than for the lower body. Look at the technical moves to figure out the prime movers in that sport. In sports training, it's more important to think about training movements and not muscles since exercises that mimic a technical move are better for targeting the prime movers.

I also believe that training has to be simplified. Especially nowadays, when there are so many gimmicks being introduced on the market and some individuals come up with all kinds of "novelties"! If you were to listen to each individual promoting a novelty [i.e. overspeed training, balance-training, etc.], you'll never have the time to actually train the athlete to reach the optimal adaptation level. Remember that high levels of specific adaptation results in athletic improvements!

T: What are some of the techniques you've used to blast through training plateaus?

TB: An athlete doesn't reach a plateau very quickly. It takes time — several years of training at a high level — before something like that can even be considered. In my career of many years I've rarely seen athletes reaching a plateau in strength training. This situation is mostly discussed in bodybuilding and at times in football. Nevertheless, let's try to discuss some possibilities for breaking through training plateaus. Here are five:

Use a maximum strength phase to stimulate higher percentage of fast twitch muscles into action. In many sports, strength training is poorly designed — lifting weights for strength's sake. There's no plan, no periodization. Athletes and bodybuilders that use periodization very rarely reach a plateau, in my experience.
Design a good periodization program with phases of maximum strength and phases of power training, where the objective is to increase the firing rate of fast-twitch muscles. In my strength training book, Periodization of Training for Sports, I discuss that in detail.
If one has a longer preparatory (pre-season) phase, several phases of maximum strength and power could be alternated. This alternation of maximum strength with power would certainly have the probability of breaking the plateau.
Under normal conditions I wouldn't suggest a maximum-strength phase for longer than six weeks. It's quite stressful to cope with. However, if an athlete has reached a plateau, I'd use a nine-week long maximum strength phase. Under these conditions, the muscles are stimulated at much higher levels than before.
Use more eccentric (negative) contraction techniques. Eccentric contractions require a much higher tension in the fast twitch muscles. Eccentric training shouldn't be used before the athletes have a better background. Unfortunately, many coaches can hardly wait to use everything they know; in this way they themselves are contributing to reaching a plateau.

T: So training and performance plateaus are often the coach's fault?

TB: Often a plateau is reached because of a coach's ignorance. Poor selection of training methods and their logical sequence also contribute. Similarly, the lack of patience in applying the right method at the right time also contributes to a psychological plateau, meaning that the coach thinks "I have used everything I know!" What's next then? Don't rush to throw everything you know at your athlete!

Organize a longer-term sequence of training methods. Plan everything you do well. Be more methodical in what you use in training. Allow the necessary time for the athlete to grow, to get ready for the next method, load increment, or alternation of types of strength. Remember that you can help a great deal, but you may also do quite a bit of damage. The coach has to wisely use maximum stimulation, high recruitment of fast-twitch muscles, and alternate with power training, where the firing rate of the same muscles are trained.

T: What about altering tempo? For example, taking more time in the concentric and eccentric ranges?

TB: Altering tempo is mostly a bodybuilding concept, though some people promote it as a sort of strength-training novelty, good for everything and everybody. The scope of altering the tempo of a lift is to create the highest tension in a muscle for the longest period of time, using both concentric and eccentric contraction.

Here's the main difference between bodybuilding and strength training for sports. For bodybuilding, the scope of increased tension is designed to induce hypertrophy. In strength training for sports, using heavy loads [> 85-90% of 1 RM] the scope is not to increase the duration of tension, but rather to apply the force against resistance as quickly and dynamically as possible so that the highest number of fast-twitch muscle fibers are recruited in the action.

Therefore, a major reason we use heavy loads in training athletes in different sports is to stimulate the recruitment of fast-twitch muscle fibers, and as a result, to use them during the performance of athletic action. The more fast twitch muscle fibers are used during the performance of a technical skill, the higher the application of force and the benefit for an increased performance.

The use of eccentric contraction in strength training for sports isn't as popular as concentric contraction. However, in some sports like throwing events in track and field and linebackers in football, it's used both to increase maximum strength and hypertrophy.

T: What role does nutrition play in recovery and do you provide nutrition and supplementation advice for athletes?

TB: The efficiency of an athlete's performance depends on his or her quality of training and nutrition. The energy used by the body strictly depends on the nutrition, diet, and training supplements one uses. But nutrition has to also be periodized according to the periodization of strength and endurance training. One can't just talk about nutrition in disregard of training.

For instance, diet has to be different for an individual working to improve hypertrophy, doing maximum speed training, or working on long-distance aerobic endurance. All these examples refer to completely different types of training which require a very specific type of nutrition. Unfortunately, most nutritionists haven't grasped this very important concept yet. They've never heard about periodization of training and the specific needs of nutrition as per a training program planned for given days. They're still talking about nutrition in general.

Two years ago, I specified such a concept to a small group of nutritionists. Most of them wanted more information about it. I suggested they look into my book, Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training, where integrated periodization is discussed.

T: Fair enough. I've read that in Bulgaria, Olympic athletes train five times a day, seven times a week and that Russian powerlifters bench press up to 21 times a week. What do you think of this training frequency and would these types of programs be beneficial to a natural trainer?

TB: I just wish that people wouldn't compare apples to oranges. In order to discuss this we have to better qualify what Bulgarians and Russian Olympic weightlifters were doing in the time of the communist system. Yes, the Bulgarian Olympic lifters were training from 9:00 AM to 5:00 or 6:00 PM, 45 minutes on and 30 minutes off, except for the lunch break of some two hours. The Russians weren't powerlifters. They were Olympic lifters and what they were doing is something they've adapted to progressively over several years. Most of these athletes had a background of eight to ten years before they were doing that kind of training.

Also, remember that their training regimen was done in national training camps, where training, sleeping, and food ingestion were the only things they were doing. In addition, they weren't working on anything else, just lifting the bloody barbells! I'm not as impressed — exaggerations and myths aside — as many seem to be, simply because I have a similar background, where my athletes were training two to four times per day with a total of five to eight hours of training!

Now let's examine what pro-athletes are doing in the US. They train technically, tactically, speed, agility and strength/power several times per week, some up to three times per day. Is anybody suggesting that these athletes have to bench press 21 times per week? Team sports, however, aren't the best examples regarding training. Many amateur athletes train much more than pro-players. Also, the quality of coaching in many team sports, especially with regard to strength and conditioning, is quite pathetic. Similarly, some of the professional coaches — in fact, the majority — have a very poor understanding of training theory.

What do I think about the programs you mentioned? Who cares? Would I like to duplicate in this continent what my athletes have done in training camps in Romania? Not at all! Different societies, different times and mentality! Yet several of the athletes trained or consulted by myself in this continent have won against the East Europeans several times with just half of the amount of training time!

One of the key elements in training is to have high training knowledge and excellent methodology in applying it. Being equipped with such knowledge can do miracles. Forget about the "locker room gossip" regarding Russians and Bulgarians.

T: What books do you recommend on strength training — besides yours, of course? Who are the best strength training coaches out there?

TB: This is a very difficult question to answer, the reason being that I don't feel comfortable discussing the books written by other authors. However, I'll try to be as frank as I can. To be honest, I'm really dissatisfied with the level of strength training books available on the market. It seems to me that there's a great mess regarding this important area.

One of the greatest frustrations I have is that to some authors, there's no clear distinction between the objectives of strength training for sports, bodybuilding, and Olympic weightlifting. Authors with a football background expect everyone to do what a linebacker is doing. The same thing is valid for those who have a bodybuilding background. They discuss split routines, supersets, etc. This is totally inadequate for strength training for sports.

To me, a strength training book must serve the needs of a given audience. Use the best sports science information possible and most importantly, be practical. Just going through the process of reviewing the literature (as many do) isn't serving anybody's purpose.

T: Do you feel that some or most strength coaches have a tendency to make their programs too general at times and too complicated at other times?

TB: Yes, you're perfectly right. Let me try to explain what happens. There are several situations that are necessary to examine. Hopefully, from this analysis, some strength and conditioning coaches may start reflecting on their own situation.

First, both the technical coach (head coach) and the strength and conditioning coach are attempting to do their best to improve their athlete's performance. Each of these two coaches is trying to prove to themselves what they know and what they can do. Unfortunately, these two individuals don't cooperate well together to create programs specific to the needs of their athletes.

The head coach, not knowing much about strength and conditioning, doesn't take a leadership role regarding how much training to do, in which areas, what to stress in order to make the athletes better, etc. The result of this lack of cooperation is a high level of fatigue. When the athletes are reporting to the coach, each coach considers them rested, which is hardly the case. Fatigue is a cumulative outcome of training. If improperly monitored, fatigue will affect an athletes potential, their focusing potential, their accuracy of passing and shooting, and their performance.

Another problem is the "cocktail" strength and conditioning coach. Often, training programs are very general, a sort of "cocktail," doing all sorts of things for every athlete in the group. There isn't specificity regarding the needs of the sport, position played, or to relate the program to the dominant energy system in that particular sport. Knowing the proportions of energy systems in that sport dictates the type of training one must do.

T: Give us an example of that please.

TB: In sports where the anaerobic alactic system is clearly dominant — baseball, linebackers in football, jumping and throwing events in track and field — training should be focused on maximum strength, power, and maximum speed. In other words, they're focused on training elements which are tapping this energy system.

What business does a linebacker have running three miles? During the game he performs like a bulldozer, demolishing the opposition, but only for a two to four-second duration. To have such an athlete run three miles is a blasphemy! I wouldn't call this "general training," but a high degree of ignorance!

T: A "cocktail" strength and conditioning coach, huh? Interesting term. Any other categories of coaches you notice?

TB: Yes, the "busy-bee" type of strength and conditioning coach who wants to do too much in a very short period of time. Let's face it, a strength and conditioning coach has two to three hours per week to work with team sports athletes. Depending on the phase of the annual plan, a strength and conditioning coach has to do specific work according to the periodization of a given motor ability. The closer to the competitive phase, the more specific and simplified training should be.

And yet many coaches are doing everything under the sun: lifting weights, power training, using medicine balls, working to improve maximum speed, etc. The uninitiated "greenhorn" coach, the one with a shallow level of knowledge in sports science, will easily bite into the gimmicks of the day, such as overspeed, balance training, rotation training, and functional training.

In addition to the fact that some of these training ideas don't work at all, attempting to use them in training creates a crisis! A time crisis! If one has two to three hours to work with the athletes, when do they have the time to use all these novelties? Simplify your training! To be effective, training must be simplified.

To create an efficient program, one has to be very selective in what he does in training. Never forget that your training must result in a very specific adaptation. When superior adaptation occurs, performance will be superior. If one is using too many training elements, it's almost impossible to have a good adaptation. Just think about that! If you do, you'll see that you don't have time and room for totally unproven gimmicks.

This is my case for position-specific training programs. In team sports, almost each position requires different qualities and taps specific proportions of the three energy systems. Take for instance a mid-fielder in soccer vs. a sweeper, or a linebacker versus a wide receiver in football. These positions are so different from each other that a "cocktail" training program impedes the improvement of these athletes. Therefore a strength and conditioning training program has to be specific, to train the necessary qualities for that position.

T: That makes total sense. By the way, do you have any new projects in the works?

TB: The newest book that will be launched is the second edition of Serious Strength Training. I'll have a new co-author, Dr. Mauro DiPasquale. This new edition will be published by Human Kinetics in August, 2002.

Another project I hope to start very soon will refer to endurance sports. I do believe, together that we'll bring several training novelties for endurance sports. Then, in the fall, I'd like to start to update my strength training for sports book, Periodization of Training for Sports, where the title has to be corrected to incorporate the term "strength." My intent is to make this book the most popular training book [it already is really, since it sold more copies than any other books.] The book will have many additions regarding sports science and practical application.

I'll also refer to several fallacies used in training, from balance training to others. In my opinion, sports scientists have to take a strong and critical stance regarding the newest gimmicks invading and polluting the market.

T: Thanks for taking the time to chat with us, Tudor.

TB: My pleasure.

For more information on Tudor Bompa, go to TudorBompa.com.

Mike Mahler is a certified kettlebell instructor and has been a strength athlete for over ten years. Mike is available for phone consultations and personal training in the Washington DC area. If you'd like more information on a personalized strength training and nutrition program to address your needs or to set up a phone consultation, please e-mail Mike at mahler25@yahoo.com or call him at 703-848-8979.

Kelemahan Olahraga Kita

2007-06-27T11:55:00.000+07:00

Oleh Agus Mahendra
Kompas, 19 Oktober 2000

OLIMPIADE telah membuka babak kesadaran baru, bahwa untuk selanjutnya kita tidak perlu terlalu tergantung dari bulu tangkis saja. Angkat besi secara mengejutkan mampu menyumbangkan medali. Pertanyaannya, benarkah Indonesia boleh berharap banyak dari cabang-cabang lainnya untuk olimpiade selanjutnya?

Kita bisa mengelompokkan potensi cabang dari kompleksitas teknis serta persyaratan mekanika yang terlibat di dalamnya. Ada cabang yang persyaratan teknik dan mekanikanya rendah, seperti angkat besi, panahan, atau beberapa nomor atletik seperti lari jarak menengah hingga jarak jauh. Ada pula cabang yang menuntut persyaratan teknik dan mekanika yang sangat kompleks, seperti senam, tenis, tenis meja, beberapa nomor atletik, dan banyak lagi.

Untuk cabang-cabang yang masuk dalam kelompok pertama, Indonesia memiliki peluang besar karena tidak memerlukan penguasaan teknik yang memakan waktu lama, dan tidak terlalu banyak membutuhkan campur tangan pelatih untuk menganalisis tekniknya. Kondisi yang harus dipenuhi, kita tidak boleh kalah dalam hal kekerapan, kekerasan, dan kebermaknaan latihan-bahkan kalau perlu dalam hal kedinian latihan. Konkretnya, mulailah latihan di cabang-cabang ini sedini mungkin, dengan dosis, intensitas, frekuensi, serta densitas latihan yang paling tinggi takarannya sehingga tidak kalah dari negara lain.

Contohnya, prestasi para pelari Kenya dan Ethiopia di jarak menengah dan jauh. Penelitian yang dilakukan para pakar dari Korsel terhadap keunggulan fenomenal para pelari kedua negara tersebut menunjukkan, rumus keberhasilan mereka ternyata bukanlah kondisi geografis yang tipis oksigen, bukan pula pola makan. Tetapi, yang lebih menentukan adalah efisiensi gerakan sebagai hasil latihan dan pola kehidupan sehari-hari.

Ini bisa dijelaskan baik dari segi motorik maupun fisiologis. Dengan pola kebiasaan dari kegiatan sehari-hari yang umumnya berisi kegiatan berlari, telah terjadi mekanisme adaptasi tubuh yang luar biasa di dalam pemrograman gerak dan metabolisme pengolahan energinya, sehingga tercapai efisiensi gerak yang sangat tinggi. Perubahan itu hanya bisa terjadi dari kegiatan yang sangat intensif, yang dilakukan sejak atlet masih kanak-kanak.

Lingkungan alam dan kebiasaan makan hanyalah penunjang, dan pada satu segi malah dapat menghambat. Hambatan inilah yang tidak disadari para pelatih kita, sehingga bibit-bibit atlet yang telah terbina alam-misalnya di bumi padang rumput Sumbawa, atau pegunungan Irian-malah hancur oleh perubahan lingkungan yang terjadi sangat tiba-tiba, ketika para atlet diboyong ke pelatnas di Jakarta. Jelas saja, para atlet mengalami kejut budaya dan pola hidup, karena tercerabut dari lingkungan hidupnya sehari-hari.

Sampai beberapa dekade ke depan, atau malah sampai kapan pun, atlet-atlet Indonesia tidak akan mampu menembus barikade keunggulan teknis atlet-atlet kelas dunia. Alasannya, atlet kita lebih sering memelihara kelemahan mendasar dalam penguasaan teknik. Ketika harus bertarung dengan atlet lain yang tekniknya sempurna, serta merta kita langsung kalah.

Mengapa atlet kita tidak bisa menguasai teknik yang sempurna? Barangkali kita harus merunut ke belakang sistem keolahragaan kita yang belum memungkinkan semua insan olahraga maju bersama-sama. Kita belum memiliki sistem keolahragaan yang jelas, baik sistem secara umum untuk seluruh cabang, maupun sistem khusus yang berlaku bagi satu cabang. Implikasinya, atlet kita lebih sering maju sendirian ke tingkat yang lebih tinggi, tetapi pelatihnya ketinggalan di belakang. Artinya, banyak atlet Indonesia yang potensial tidak mampu berkembang lagi karena keterbatasan kemampuan pelatih. Akibat lanjutannya, kematangan atau kesempurnaan teknik atlet kita selalu kalah kualitas dibandingkan lawan.

***

KUALITAS pelatih kita tidak pernah maju karena ketiadaan sistem keolahragaan di Indonesia telah menyebabkan belum terpetakannya secara jelas profil kemampuan pelatih beserta jenjang kariernya. Ketika seorang pelatih dipilih, tidak ada kriteria yang jelas tentang tingkat dan kemampuan apa yang bisa dijadikan sebagai tolok ukur. Tidak jelas pula jalur karier seorang pelatih yang ingin meningkatkan tingkat kualifikasi atau kemampuannya. Jika bukan karena kegigihannya sendiri, kemampuan pelatih kita lebih sering mentok di satu tingkat saja.

Oleh sebab itu, kemampuan pelatih kita tidak pernah terasah dalam memadukan prinsip biomekanika yang melandasi pelaksanaan teknik gerakan dalam tataran praktiknya. Padahal, pemahaman yang baik pada prinsip mekanik serta hukum-hukum alam yang mempengaruhi gerak, merupakan syarat utama bagi kesempurnaan teknik. Kelemahan dalam hal satu ini bukan saja terlihat pada saat menangani tim elite nasional kita, melainkan terjadi pula pada pembinaan di tingkat pemula.

Komentar pelatih asing pada penampilan atlet kita selalu sama dari waktu ke waktu, yaitu penerapan teknik dasarnya (basic technique) salah sehingga memerlukan banyak waktu untuk mengoreksinya. Kelemahan lain pelatih ialah dalam memahami prinsip-prinsip pelatihan dan mengutak-atik metode serta teknik yang ada. Mereka tidak kreatif mencari cara baru. Mereka tak memiliki kemampuan produksi, lebih suka mereproduksi atau meniru sesuatu yang memang sudah ada.

Mungkin asumsi ini bisa dipatahkan dengan mengajukan kasus bulu tangkis yang berhasil dalam tiga olimpiade, padahal bulu tangkis berada dalam kelompok cabang yang tidak sederhana. Ini juga tidak benar, karena bulu tangkis posisinya berada di antara kedua kelompok yang disebut di atas. Dalam arti itu, kita dapat mengatakan kompleksitas teknik bulu tangkis tidak serumit cabang permainan lain, misalnya tenis atau sepak bola.

Selain itu, satu hal yang paling menentukan keunggulan bulu tangkis kita adalah fanatisme masyarakat terhadap permainan itu sendiri. Bulu tangkis seolah-olah sudah menjadi permainan milik kita sendiri sehingga sama dengan budaya kita. Kepekatan nuansa budaya ini yang telah membuat para pemain Indonesia mencapai efisiensi gerak dan gaya yang khas Indonesia, sehingga unggul dari lawan.

Kasus kita di bulu tangkis sama seperti Pakistan di cabang hoki, Korsel di taekwondo, atau Rumania dan Rusia di senam. Bedanya, cabang favorit di negara-negara lain terus digali secara ilmiah dan kultural, serta dana yang memadai. Sementara, pembinaan bulu tangkis di Indonesia berkembang lebih secara alamiah. Oleh karena itu, kita boleh ragu bahwa pada olimpiade mendatang, bulu tangkis masih bisa diandalkan untuk menyumbang emas. Di Sydney, hanya satu dari lima emas yang diperoleh.

Kelemahan paling mendasar keolahragaan kita adalah iklim kompetisi yang tidak terarah dan tidak teratur. Dari segi ini, kita bisa mendeteksi betapa tidak seimbangnya kemampuan atlet kita dalam hal teknik dibandingkan kemampuan mentalnya. Atlet kita sering sudah menyerah sebelum berlaga, mencerminkan kelemahan mental bertanding yang memang tidak terasah secara terarah, baik saat latihan maupun saat pertandingan.

Tentu masih banyak kelemahan keolahragaan kita, tetapi yang mencolok adalah mental para pengurus Orde Baru. Budaya instant adalah yang paling mendesak untuk dikikis, sehingga pengurus sadar tidak ada gunanya bergulat dengan program-program instant untuk meraih medali atau juara umum, hanya karena ingin dianggap berjasa.

Yang terlebih penting adalah mendorong dan kalau perlu mendanai, upaya penciptaan sistem dari setiap cabang olahraga, walaupun hasilnya baru bisa terlihat satu generasi mendatang. Inilah yang sekarang mulai disadari Malaysia yang mensponsori penciptaan sistem bagi beberapa cabang strategis.

* Agus Mahendra MA, dosen FPOK-UPI

Belajar dari Yayuk Basuki

2007-06-27T11:18:00.000+07:00

Atlet Kita harus Sinergikan Pengalaman dengan Iptek
Bali Post, 17 Desember 2006

Pada 1-15 Desember lalu telah berlangsung Asian Games XV di Doha, Qatar. Pada ajang olah raga itu, Indonesia juga ikut berpartisipasi karena masih punya sejumlah atlet yang baik. Namun, yang akan dibahas di sini adalah atlet yang baik barangkali kurang diimbangi oleh pembinaan yang sepadan. Guna membicarakan itu, tamu kita kali ini adalah Yayuk Basuki. Bagi dunia, ia salah seorang bintang. Sedangkan bagi Indonesia, ia petenis terbesar yang pernah dimiliki dengan pernah mencapai peringkat 20 besar di dunia dan berprestasi besar di Wimbledon.

Di event Asian Games, Yayuk Basuki sudah mendapatkan empat medali emas yang diraih dalam rentang waktu yang sangat lebar. Pertama kali mendapatkan medali emas pada 1986 yaitu di ganda putri bersama Susanna Anggarkusuma dan terakhir kali emas tunggal putri pada 1998. Ini satu rekor tersendiri. Kini, pemerintah -- dalam hal ini Menteri Pemuda dan Olah Raga -- telah menunjuk Yayuk menjadi salah seorang anggota tim untuk memantau olah raga. Berikut wawancara dengan Yayuk Basuki.

--------------

APA tugas yang diberikan pemerintah kepada Anda sekarang?

Saya sekarang masuk dalam tim monitoring yang berada di Kantor Kementerian Negara Pemuda dan Olah Raga. Tim ini dibentuk oleh Menteri Pemuda dan Olah Raga (Menpora) karena melihat kegagalan kontingen Indonesia di ajang SEA Games di Filipina pada 2005. Setelah mengevaluasi kinerja tim Indonesia, Menpora menilai perlu membentuk suatu badan yang akhirnya dinamakan tim monitoring. Tugas kita adalah memonitor dan mengawasi seluruh pelaksanaan program maupun pembinaan khususnya pemusatan latihan di Tanah Air. Kita juga sudah memprediksi seberapa besar peluang kita di Asian Games 2006 ataupun di SEA Games 2007. Sebenarnya banyak tugas kita termasuk mengefisiensikan anggaran dan memonitor penggunaan anggaran supaya tepat guna dan pembinaannya berlanjut.

Tugas tim monitoring ini begitu banyak. Khusus di cabang olah raga tenis, sering ada gejala secara individu, yaitu banyak atlet yang berprestasi tapi kalau sudah terjun ke gelanggang multi-event atau yang besar tidak berprestasi?

Kalau saya perhatikan dan ini juga saya lihat setelah saya mendunia atau masuk profesional, atlet-atlet kita memiliki perbedaan dengan atlet negara lain. Perbedaan yang mencolok yaitu faktor mental. Faktor mental ini benar-benar harus diperbaiki oleh seluruh atlet di Indonesia. Dampak faktor mental ini sangat luas. Contoh kecilnya seperti saat bertanding biasa di dalam negeri mencatat hasil bagus. Misalnya, seorang pelari mencatat waktu yang bagus. Tapi setelah diadakan uji tanding di luar negeri, mungkin catatan waktunya akan berubah.

Maksudnya, prestasi atlet kita tidak stabil?

Kadang-kadang mereka juga akhirnya tidak konsisten. Misalnya, seorang karateka bernama Umar Syarif pernah juara dunia junior di Denmark. Dia salah satu karateka terbaik di dunia saat ini. Walaupun kini sedang mengalami cedera, tapi saya dengar Umar sudah siap kembali lagi. Saya ingat sekali saat terjun di Asian Games 1998, tangan Umar Syarif berkeringat dingin. Jadi dari sisi pribadinya sendiri ada keraguan, mentalnya ternyata belum terasah.

Artinya, sewaktu menjadi juara dunia mentalnya kuat, tapi di tempat lain seperti Asian Games bisa lemah?

Ya. Ini karena Asian Games adalah multi-event di mana kita membawa nama negara. Kalau kejuaraan dunia mungkin masih membawa nama individu. Itu perbedaannya. Kedua, di sisi lain kurangnya pertandingan. Barangkali untuk satu-dua kali pertandingan oke, tapi itu belum mencukupi. Atlet-atlet kita seharusnya banyak mengikuti uji tanding. Jadi setiap bulan mereka harus ada uji tanding supaya prestasi mereka bisa konsisten. Kalau kita lihat, saat ini masih naik-turun gelombang prestasinya.

Kalau Anda, saat bertanding di Wimbledon sebagai individu dan bertanding di Asian Games atau SEA Games yang membawa nama negara, mana paling berat tekanannya?

Terjun di arena Asian Games itu lebih stres karena tanggung jawab kita kepada negara. Saya tidak bertanggung jawab terhadap pribadi, tetapi pada negara. Tapi di situ seninya buat saya, walaupun saya sampai dikatakan aneh. Saya benar-benar mencintai tantangan.

Beban karena stres membela negara, tapi ada dukungan dari negara juga. Ini berarti saling mengimbangi. Kalau di Wimbledon, kadang-kadang saat latihan tidak ada yang tahu, tidak ada dukungan juga?

Iya, benar. Seperti saat kita berangkat, maka berangkat sendiri. Kalau multi-event itu, seluruh mata masyarakat olah raga tertuju ke kita dan kita juga menjadi tumpuan untuk mengharumkan nama negara. Tapi di situ timbul suatu semangat buat saya karena satu motivasi saya adalah mengharumkan nama bangsa. Jadi berbuat yang terbaik. Bagi saya, terjun di arena Asian Games betul lebih stres karena dibutuhkan konsentrasi ekstra.

Jadi, di situ ada faktor masing-masing individu, ada yang senang tantangan dan ada yang menjadi goyah. Pasti selalu ada variasi antar-individu terhadap hal itu. Apa yang bisa dilakukan oleh organisasi olah raga untuk membantu atlet yang beragam itu?

Kita mendidik dari awal. Jadi betul-betul kita menciptakan suatu sistem organisasi secara lebih sistematis di mana sekarang ini sudah banyak penyandangnya, salah satunya termasuk ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi (Iptek). Kita harus mengkombinasikan itu semua dengan perkembangan Iptek sekarang yang luar biasa. Kita tidak bisa seperti dulu tergantung berdasarkan pengalaman saja. Untuk sekarang, itu tidak akan mampu bertahan lama. Pengalaman itu harus kita sinergikan dengan Iptek. Itu saya rasa akan lebih baik. Hanya saja cara kerjanya memang harus sistematis. Kadang-kadang organisasi kita maunya tetap instan. Dari langkah pertama maunya langsung ke langkah kelima tanpa ke langkah kedua, ketiga, dan keempat dulu. Saya lihat beberapa organisasi masih seperti itu sistem kerjanya. Bagi saya, perlu kita revitalisasi supaya pada masa depan pembinaan menjadi lebih langgeng, lebih panjang, dan atlet pun akan berprestasi lebih lama.

Di beberapa organisasi ada psikolognya. Apakah memang jawabannya ada di situ atau dalam aura organisasi yang lebih luas?

Psikolog adalah salah satu penyandang juga. Sebetulnya ada beberapa tenaga ahli yang kita perlukan, salah satunya Iptek tadi. Tapi di sisi lain kita juga sudah pasti membutuhkan seorang psikolog. Walaupun tidak semua cabang olah raga percaya akan fungsi psikolog, saya pribadi sangat menyetujui dan psikolog ini adalah yang kita butuhkan. Saya lihat di nasional belum banyak organisasi yang memanfaatkan psikolog.

Apakah atlet pada umumnya punya sistem "support" sendiri secara mental seperti orangtuanya, temannya atau lainnya?

Saya rasa tidak. Seharusnya orang yang paling dekat dengan atlet adalah pelatih. Pelatih ini akhirnya yang akan memberikan masukan. Pelatih adalah panutan atlet. Pelatih membuat laporan ke organisasi atau manajer. Pelatih ini yang paling tahu kondisi dan kebutuhan atlet. Maaf, pelatih kita belum banyak yang tahu teknologi keolahragaan. Jadi semua memang rata-rata masih berdasarkan pengalaman. Contohnya, mereka yang dari mantan atlet jika tidak mengikuti Iptek olah raga maka belum tentu akan menjadi pelatih yang baik.

Ada yang mengatakan kalau olah raga beregu kita lemah tapi olah raga perorangan kita kuat seperti terlihat dalam tenis, badminton, tenis meja. Apakah itu betul? Apa bedanya beregu dan individu dalam konteks kelemahan mental atlet?

Sebetulnya kalau itu dianggap perbedaan tidak juga. Belakangan ini memang cabang-cabang olah raga tadi secara individual yang kelihatan lebih menonjol seperti badminton dan juga catur. Tapi kita juga mesti berterus terang bahwa cabang-cabang strategis kita saat ini baru mengalami kemerosotan yang sangat di bawah sekali. Itu mungkin benar-benar tanpa terprediksi sebelumnya termasuk cabang strategis seperti renang, atletik, dan senam.

Kita biasanya berharap atletik bisa menyumbangkan 8-17 medali emas di SEA Games. Tapi dalam SEA Games lalu atletik hanya bisa meyumbangkan satu medali emas. Sangat jauh kemerosotannya. Renang juga sama. Dari sekitar 50 medali emas yang diperebutkan, renang hanya menyumbang 1-2 medali emas. Juga merosot, karena biasanya renang menyumbangkan puluhan medali emas sejak zaman Lukman Niode sampai Elfira Rosa Nasution. Bagaimana ini?

Kita memang harus mengatasi hal ini, mencari tahu mengapa cabang olah raga itu sangat merosot. Saya katakan lagi, perlu ada revitalisasi dari sisi pembinaan karena cabang-cabang olah raga ini sekarang rata-rata tidak berbasis pada Iptek. Karena itu kita coba memasukkan agar basis utama setiap cabang olah raga dari Iptek dulu. Contoh kecil, di bidang olah raga saya yaitu tenis. Di tenis kita juga mesti paham mengenai bio mechanic.

Bisa dicontohkan diri Anda misalnya?

Misalnya, saya yang bertubuh kecil tapi bisa melakukan serv dan forehand keras. Dari mana saya bisa melakukan itu, bisa diteliti. Barangkali dari rotasi tubuh dan itu bisa dilakukan penelitian dari body rotation. Anak-anak sekarang berpikir, agar pukulan keras maka pukul dengan keras sehingga mengakibatkan tangan bisa cedera. Kalau dulu, bagaimana cara meminimalisasikan cedera ini, tapi sekarang kok malah lebih banyak cedera. Itu dianggap karena turnamennya lebih banyak. Padahal sebetulnya kerawanan cedera ini bisa kita sedikit redam. Itu memang bisa dari tubuh si anak, bisa juga dari over training, atau seorang pelatih yang tidak begitu memahami.

Dibanding dulu, sekarang banyak turnamen setiap minggu dan orang bisa melihat secara detail dan "close up". Orang awam saja bisa mendapatkan informasi itu. Apakah atlet sekarang tidak lebih cenderung ke Iptek dengan mengamati perkembangan tenis dunia?

Atlet kita kadang-kadang tahunya "pokoknya saya masuk lapangan dan latihan".

Mereka kurang memperhatikan yang di luar lapangan?

Iya, saya perhatikan ada beberapa atlet di luar waktu latihan malah tidur. Padahal waktu kosong itu mungkin bisa kita isi dengan aktivitas lain seperti kursus satu mata pelajaran atau bahasa atau belajar komputer. Sebetulnya sisi otak atlet ini juga perlu kita asah supaya mereka tetap aktif. Sekarang, atlet setelah capek latihan maka istirahat tidur saja dan tidak ada aktivitas lain. Padahal mereka juga dituntut untuk mengetahui perkembangan Iptek. Maaf, saya bukan menghakimi, tapi saya rasa ini yang perlu kita selamatkan dan perlu kita programkan untuk ke depan. Ini supaya atlet-atlet kita saat menghadapi lawan bukan hanya kondisi tubuhnya segar dan tidak hanya bermodal power saja, tapi juga bermodalkan skill dan isi kepalanya.

Kondisi Indonesia berubah-ubah seperti mengalami krisis moneter, susah, bahkan sekarang susah minyak segala. Sebetulnya, apakah ada pengaruh ekonomi terhadap prestasi atlet?

Saat ini sangat berpengaruh karena atlet sekarang beda dengan dulu. Kalau dulu, atlet kita benar-benar mau maju demi Indonesia, sedangkan atlet sekarang kalau tidak ada biaya maka tidak mau maju. Jadi terus terang saja, perbedaannya di situ.

Dalam kondisinya yang sudah berbeda, bagaimana menggabungkan motif pribadi dengan kebesaran negaranya, apakah prestasi atlet kita akan naik?

Terus terang saja dan ini bukan karena saya pesimis, tapi memang peluang atlet kita -- contohnya di Asian Games XV ini -- sangat berat. Salah satunya karena Cina menurunkan seluruh atlet juara dunia. (*)

Bulutangkis Ready Papan

2007-06-21T14:45:00.000+07:00

Kompas 21 Juni 2001

"SMES...," teriak penonton. Sontak atlet itu melompat sambil mengayunkan raket dari papan untuk memukul bola. Pukulannya keras sehingga bola itu menghunjam di sektor kiri lawan. Tetapi, lawannya cukup sigap. Dengan congkelan keras, berhasil mengembalikan bola itu tinggi-tinggi ke belakang.

Itulah permainan bulu tangkis ready papan yang kini sangat populer di beberapa daerah di Sulawesi Selatan, khususnya di tiga kabupaten di Sulawesi Selatan yang berada di sebelah Utara Makassar. Ketiga kabupaten tersebut yakni Polewali Mamasa (247 kilometer), Majene (302 kilometer), dan Mamuju (443 kilometer).

Olahraga ini diadaptasi langsung dari bulu tangkis. Maka bentuk permainan dan cara perhitungan point ready papan berikut bentuk lapangan maupun netnya, sama persis dengan bulu tangkis. Bedanya hanya pada bentuk raket dan bola, ukuran lapangan serta jarak net ke lapangan.

Kalau normalnya lapangan bulu tangkis untuk ganda berukuran panjang 13,40 meter dan lebar 6,10 meter, serta untuk tunggal berukuran panjang 13,40 meter dan lebar 5,18 meter, maka lapangan ready papan diperkecil menjadi lebar 4 meter dan panjang 8 meter. Kalau pada lapangan bulu tangkis tinggi atau jarak net dihitung dari lantai hingga ke ujung tiang 1,52 meter, maka pada lapangan ready papan dikurangi hingga menjadi sekitar 130 cm. Kalau melihat ukuran berat bola bulu tangkis yang normal antara 4,73-5,50 gram, praktis berat bola readypapan sudah sangat jauh dari yang seharusnya.

Yang unik sekaligus yang menjadikan namanya ready papan, adalah bentuk raketnya. Selain ukurannya kecil yakni panjang 40 cm dan garis tengah antara 12 cm-15 cm, raket ini juga terbuat dari papan. Karena pertimbangan ini pula, tak heran bolanya juga berbeda dengan bola yang biasa dipakai pada bulu tangkis kendati pada dasarnya sama. Bedanya terletak pada penambahan bulu ayam dan pelapisan karet pada bagian pantat bola. Bahkan tak jarang pada bagian bawah ini ditusuk jarum pentul kecil sebanyak delapan buah. Ini dilakukan untuk mencegah bola cepat rusak mengingat raketnya adalah papan.

Seperti pada olahraga bulu tangkis, dalam setiap pertandingan, dipertandingkan juga kelas tunggal putra dan putri, beregu putra dan putri, serta ganda campuran. Sebagai catatan, di beberapa event tingkat kabupaten, tak jarang penonton bahkan menjadikan pertandingan ini ajang taruhan.

***

OLAHRAGA ini berawal dari ketidakmampuan masyarakat membeli raket yang harganya selangit berikut bolanya yang kendati murah tetapi butuh beberapa buah sekali main. Itulah awal mula mengapa olahraga ini ada dan menjadi marak.

"Awalnya memang dari ketidakmampuan membeli raket. Belum lagi bola yang bisa habis berapa buah kalau latihan. Padahal keinginan dan minat main bulu tangkis di masyarakat sangat kuat. Apalagi kalau di tingkat nasional atau internasional sedang berlangsung pertandingan yang disiarkan di televisi," kisah Mardin (40), pegawai Dinas Kesehatan Majene yang tinggal di Kecamatan Tinambung, Polmas.

Tiga kabupaten yang masuk dalam wilayah Mandar (Polewali Mamasa, Majene, dan Mamuju) memang bukanlah daerah yang kaya-kaya amat kalau melihat PAD-nya. Kasarnya kalau mau membandingkan, di daerah ini, urusan isi perut atau keperluan pokok lainnya jauh lebih penting dari sekadar membeli raket dan bola.

Tak heran di kalangan kanak-kanak, ketika keinginan untuk bermain bulu tangkis makin kuat, pilihan akhirnya jatuh pada potongan-potongan kayu atau tripleks. Bahkan di dusun-dusun, pelepah kelapa yang umumnya agak besar di bagian pangkalnya, dimodifikasi jadi raket. Bolanya, menggunakan bola bekas latihan atau bertanding yang dimodifikasi dengan ditambah bulu ayam dan karet.

Bahkan acapkali, bolanya dibuat dari gulungan daun pisang kering yang dibentuk sedemikian rupa hingga menyerupai bola. Daun pisang kering juga yang kerap dianyam atau diikat-ikat hingga menyerupai net dan dibentangkan di antara batang-batang pohon kelapa atau pisang. Kerap kali bolanya juga dibuat sendiri dari bulu ayam yang ditancapkan pada pelepah atau batang pisang.

Lama-kelamaan, entah siapa yang memulai dan tepatnya dari desa mana, akhirnya timbul ide membuat raket dari papan yang bentuknya betul-betul menyerupai raket asli. Ukurannya diperkecil kira-kita lebih besar dari bad tenis meja tetapi lebih kecil dari raket bulu tangkis. Pemilihan ukuran ini juga mengingat bahannya yang dari kayu yang pasti akan sangat berat bila seukuran raket asli. Dengan ini olahraga ini tidak berkesan main-main lagi tetapi jadi sungguh-sungguh. Singkat cerita, jadilah permainan bulu tangkis yang mengasikkan, nature serta tak terlalu menguras biaya. Tak hanya kanak-kanak, permainan ini juga dimainkan orang dewasa.

Yang jelas olahraga ini tumbuh dari masyarakat. Bagaikan bola salju yang terus menggelinding, olahraga ini terus berkembang. Masyarakat benar-benar gandrung. Tak terhitung sudah berapa banyak event perlombaan yang dilaksanakan mulai dari tingkat desa hingga antarkabupaten. Bahkan di beberapa instansi pemerintah dan perusahaan swasta, olahraga ini juga sudah punya jadwal wajib, di samping senam, voli atau jenis olahraga lain yang lazim selama ini. Menyusul maraknya olahraga ini, bermunculan pula PB-PB (Persatuan Bulu tangkis) ready papan mulai dari tingkat dusun hingga tingkat kabupaten, termasuk di instansi-instansi pemerintah maupun perusahaan swasta.

***

PADA mulanya memang ada rasa malu bahkan gengsi di kalangan masyarakat kelas atas untuk ikut memainkan olahraga jenis ini mengingat asal mula adanya olahraga ini. Tetapi, keasyikan dan kegandrungan masyarakat mengalahkan semua rasa itu.

"Asyiknya olahraga ini karena memukulnya lebih keras dari permainan bulu tangkis sebagaimana biasanya. Jadinya betul-betul menguras tenaga dan membakar lemak. Lagipula enak mendengar suara plok-plok-plok dari bola yang dipukul raket papan," ujar Ny Kardi, anggota Dharma Wanita PLN Polmas.

Sebenarnya bila mau mencermati lebih jauh, di Indonesia permainan bulu tangkis menggunakan raket papan bukan lagi hal yang betul-betul baru. Di hampir seluruh wilayah Indonesia sejak dulu sudah sering terlihat anak-anak kecil yang bermain bulu tangkis menggunakan potongan kayu, tripleks atau alat seadanya, bahkan penutup panci. Bolanya bisa buatan sendiri atau menggunakan bulu bekas berlatih atau bertanding.

Hanya, entah apa sebab dan bagaimana awal mulanya, hingga di tiga kabupaten ini, bulu tangkis ready papan betul-betul jadi marak dan membuat masyarakat jadi tergila-gila. Buktinya hampir setiap bulan ada saja yang menggelar pertandingan dan selalu ramai. Tidak jarang masyarakat dari kabupaten Polmas, misalnya, mengikuti pertandingan di Majene kendati pertandingan yang digelar bukan antarkabupaten. Begitu pun sebaliknya. Praktis ini juga terjadi pada para penonton. Ini dilakukan jika para pemain atau penonton sudah tak sabar menunggu dan belum ada yang menggelar pertandingan di daerahnya.

Bahkan belakangan, menyusul maraknya olahraga ini bermunculan pula usaha-usaha kecil yang mengkhususkan pada pembuatan raket papan. Harganya bervariasi mulai Rp 5.000-Rp 7.000 per pasang, tergantung jenis kayu yang digunakan. Sementara itu modifikasi bola tidak berubah, artinya walaupun, misalnya, menggunakan bola baru, tetap ditambah bulu ayam dan karet agar tidak cepat rusak.

Begitulah.., hingga kini, di tengah gencarnya berbagai temuan baru yang kental teknologi yang tidak sedikit juga menyentuh bidang olahraga, masyarakat Mandar di tiga kabupaten, tetap dengan keasyikannya bermain ready papan yang sangat nature. Kalau mulanya masih ada sedikit rasa malu atau bahkan gengsi dengan olahraga yang asalnya dari "ketidakmampuan" ini, maka saat ini yang ada adalah rasa bangga dan semangat untuk terus memajukan olahraga ini.

"Kami bahkan berniat terus memasyarakatkan ready papan. Barangkali saja kelak kami dapat jadi tuan rumah untuk event bertaraf nasional dan bukan lagi antardusun atau antarkabupaten. Barangkali saja olahraga ini bisa meluas ke daerah lain," harap Mardin yang bersama teman-temannya kerap mengadakan berbagai event pertandingan mulai tingkat dusun hingga antarkabupaten. (Reny Sri Ayu Taslim)

Smes Lebih Ilmiah

2007-06-11T15:25:00.000+07:00

Majalah GAMMA Nomor: 22-2 - 25-07-2000

Peneliti ITB berhasil merancang raket untuk pemain bulutangkis secara ilmiah. Intinya, supaya pemain tak cepat lelah.

OLAHRAGA apa yang paling hebat di Indonesia? Jawabanya, pasti banyak yang menyebut bulutangkis. Itu tak salah. Paling tidak, ukurannya adalah banyaknya prestasi yang diukir cabang olahraga ini di arena internasional. Tapi, yang aneh, dari sisi ilmiah, olahraga populer di Tanah Air ini kurang digarap secara serius. Mantan pemain putri nasional, Ivana Lee, misalnya, terang-terangan mengakui kalau memang tidak ada kajian soal fisika matematis terhadap raket bulutangkis.

Inilah yang mengusik pikiran Dr. Ir. Bagus Budiwantoro. Peneliti pada Laboratorium Perancangan Mesin Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB) itu kemudian mempelajari desain raket yang pas, terutama untuk mengoptimalkan sweet spot area (SSA), daerah pada raket yang memberikan pantulan pukulan relatif sempurna dan vibrasi energi ke tangan sekecil mungkin. Ini supaya pemain tak cepat lelah. Kajian selama 1,5 tahun yang dibiayai Ditjen Pendidikan Tinggi itulah yang kemudian dibawa Bagus ke Industrial Mathematics Week -sebuah workshop yang diikuti para dosen, peneliti, dan kalangan industri untuk memecahkan problem industri lewat matematika- di Kampus ITB, pekan lalu. Menurut Bagus, saat ini hampir semua pemain bulutangkis nasional memakai raket impor. Alasannya, hingga kini tak ada pabrik raket lokal sebagus milik Yonex, Pro Kennex, Cartlon, atau merek dunia lainnya. Bahan raket impor memang bisa disebut canggih, seperti boron, komposit, titanium, dan campuran karbon. Hasilnya, raket menjadi ringan dan lentur. Bandingkan dengan raket produksi lokal yang masih menggunakan bahan aluminium dan besi baja. "Teknologi pembuatannya pun masih sangat sederhana," kata Bagus.

Anggapan bahwa raket impor selalu baik, menurut doktor bidang vibrasi dari Centrale Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Prancis, itu belum tentu seluruhnya benar. Bagus kemudian melakukan eksperimen. Hasilnya, raket yang baik sangat bergantung pada karakteristik dinamik raket bersangkutan. Misalnya, frekuensi pribadi, peredaman, dan mode shapes. Selain itu, Bagus juga mengkaji raket untuk pemain khusus. Pemain dengan tipe menyerang semacam Haryanto Arbi, misalnya, harus menggunakan raket penyerang pula. Lalu, apa yang dilakukan?

Caranya, Bagus menggeser sweet spot area (SSA). Rupanya, setiap raket memiliki SSA berbeda. Jika kok jatuh pada SSA, si pemain tak akan cepat lelah. "Karena energi dalam bentuk vibrasi yang sampai ke tangan setelah kok mengenai raket juga sangat kecil," jelas Bagus kepada Gamma. Sebaliknya, jika kok lebih banyak mengenai daerah di luar SSA, dalam waktu tak lama si pemain akan cepat capai. Daerah inilah yang disebut dead spot.

Teknik yang dilakukan Bagus adalah memindahkan SSA ke hitting area (daerah yang paling sering kena kok atau daerah pukulan favorit). Daerah ini berbeda-beda untuk setiap pemain. "Untuk mengetahuinya, bisa dilihat di daerah mana senar raket biasanya putus. Tapi, tak sesederhana itu karena perlu dilakukan uji laboratorium," kata Bagus.

Sebelum dilakukan pemindahan SSA, harus dikenal dulu titik SSA pada setiap pemain. Caranya dengan menjepit grip (pegangan) raket lewat jepitan khusus yang sama jika dijepit tangan pemain. Lalu, jatuhkan kok ke raket pada titik-titik yang berbeda. Getaran yang ditimbulkan pun dicatat. Energi inilah yang kemudian merambat ke tangan pemain. Yang paling rendah getarannya merupakan titik SSA.

Dari sini diketahui bahwa SSA sangat bergantung pada karakteristik dinamik raket. Seperti, massa dan geometri raket, bentuk penampang, bahan, serta tegangan senar. Metode pemindahan SSA yang dilakukan Bagus adalah dengan cara menambahkan sejumlah massa berupa karet ke kepala raket. Atau, dengan mengikatkan sejumlah nilon ke salah satu sisi atas kepala raket tadi. Sayang, Bagus amat pelit menjelaskan lebih lanjut soal perhitungan pemindahan ini. "Lagi dipatenkan," ujarnya sambil tersenyum.

Dalam penelitian ini, Bagus dibantu Edy Soewono dari Pusat Penelitian dan Penerapan Matematika (P4M) ITB. Kajian matematis, seperti berapa lama getaran kok sampai ke tangan pemain, kini sedang dihitung doktor matematika dari Ohio University itu. Penelitian lanjutan tersebut, kata Edy, sangat tidak mudah. Parameter dalam kajian ini sangat banyak dan rumit, termasuk area grip yang dipegang pemain sampai tingkat nervous yang dimiliki pemain. Kalau penelitian ini berhasil, harapan untuk mendongkrak prestasi para pebulutangkis kita bukan sekadar angan-angan. Paling tidak, hasil penelitian ini bisa memberikan kontribusi berarti. Semoga.

-Paulus Winarto

If You Coach Children

2007-06-05T11:09:00.001+07:00

you have to take particular care to avoid repetitive stress
by: Raphael Brandon

By definition, coaches should be able to help athletes avoid injury. Part of a coach's job description should be to incorporate suitable injury prevention work into each training programme - for example, maintaining the correct levels of flexibility and working on core stability.

Coaches should also concentrate on making sure that injuries don't occur during the workouts themselves. This is especially important if you coach children, because young athletes are particularly prone to developing injuries since their bodies are still maturing and bones and muscles are growing. This is especially true of chronic 'overuse' injuries. An overuse injury happens when an athlete performs one particular movement repeatedly and the body cannot cope with the repetitive stress associated with that movement. For example, runner's knee is related to the repeated knee flexion as the foot strikes the ground many times during a run. The knee joint, possibly because of knee-joint mechanics, cannot cope with this repetitive stress. Young athletes commonly suffer this type of injury. For instance, 'Little Leaguer's elbow' is famous in America where young baseball pitchers suffer a very high incidence of elbow tendinitis caused by repeated pitching at 80 mph at the age of 10. In the UK, shoulder injuries in young swimmers and tennis players are common (front-crawl and serving related injuries) as is knee pain.

The way to reduce the risk of children suffering injuries like this is to identify the movements or exercises which involve high forces or high repetitions and monitor the amount that these are performed. As the child develops and continues to train on a regular basis, you can gradually increase the amount that these demanding movements or exercises are carried out. It is also wise when training young athletes to allow for generous rest periods and to focus on quality, not quantity.

Take the case of Tim

The following case study is a classic example of a young athlete who suffered from an overuse injury and the rehabilitation process he had to go through to ensure the injury didn't return. Tim is a 10-year-old tennis player of national standard. He plays between 4-8 hours a week plus one hour of fitness training. Last December he suffered a wrist injury, where the circum-stances that led to the injury were entirely related to its cause.

Tim had spent over two hours in the afternoon playing points against a friend. He then went into a one-hour tennis lesson with his coach. In the lesson, the coach concentrated on top-spin serves. The top-spin requires an extra 'whip' of the wrist through the ball to achieve the extra spin, and is a demanding movement. By the end of the lesson Tim's wrist was painful and the damage had been done. Basically, his wrist joint was not strong enough to withstand two hours of friendly competition (if such a thing is possible with young athletes!) followed by a lesson which focused on one particularly demanding movement. As a result, Tim suffered an overuse wrist tendinitis injury.

The clear lesson here is that demanding movements should be concentrated into smaller coaching segments or only worked on when the athlete is completely fresh. Tim's injury obviously wasn't caused intentionally, but at the same time it can be considered to be the result of a 'training error'. A training error occurs when you perform 'too much, too soon' or 'too much, too tired'. Young athletes are much more sensitive to training errors, and as coaches we must therefore be as vigilant as we can.

The difficulty arises in trying to quantify what comprises a suitable training dose without falling into what could be considered as a training error. Sometimes it can be confusing trying to balance the act between not pushing young athletes too hard and treating them as though they were wrapped in cotton wool. However, it is possible to take a measured approach to training doses by thinking about how many repetitions of the movement should take place in the training session.

When we train in the gym with weights, we naturally set limits to the number of repetitions performed. We don't allow our athletes to do bench presses for a whole workout; instead, they are unlikely to perform more than 30 reps of bench presses split up into 3-4 sets with rest periods. The same is true of a plyometric training workout. We don't have athletes hopping around for a whole hour. Instead, they will perform something in the region of 100 foot contacts in a 45-minute workout, split up into many sets with rest periods in between.

How this applies to Tim

The answer to the problem of calculating suitable training doses is to apply the same planning to all coaching sessions that you apply to strength or power workouts. When you are coaching a movement that involves high forces, or when you are teaching a new exercise - this is demanding simply because it is unfamiliar - you need to plan in advance a fixed limit of repetitions. If Tim had hit 20 top-spin serves and then gone on to another activity, he probably wouldn't have been injured. The next training session he could have hit 40 serves and progressed methodically from this gentle starting point. I believe that if you take this kind of measured approach you are less likely to injure your athletes during training.

To recap what I've been saying, to avoid injuries you need to identify the movements in your sport that involve high forces or large numbers of repetitions. Then, having identified these, you need to plan appropriate training doses based on how new the movement is and how well-conditioned the athlete is. From this starting point, you can progress the intensity or volume of training in a sensible manner. Remember, with children, if you always give them exercise in short bursts and small doses with rest intervals in between, they will probably cope very well. If you think about children's natural activity patterns, everything they do is in short bursts of high intensity. They climb, sprint, jump, throw, and play games involving twisting and turning - all demanding movements, but performed in short bursts. Whereas adults, when they want a leisure activity are more likely to go for a five-mile continuous run, children will perform multiple sprints with rest periods over the course of an afternoon's play. You don't need to be frightened of teaching children demanding tasks or movements - just don't give them too many, and always allow generous rest periods. This way you will reduce most injury risks.

Rehabilitating Tim

Having analysed the causes of Tim's injury and the implications of training errors, a synopsis of Tim's rehabilitation period is also a very good example of what can happen when trying to recover from an injury.

After his injury occurred, Tim rested from tennis for a few days. When he tried to play again, the pain returned. He then rested again and then played again, with the same result.

At this point he visited a physiotherapist for treatment. By then Tim's parents were increasingly concerned about the persistent recurrence of pain and accepted my recom-mendation that Tim should rest completely from tennis and simply do general PE at school and fitness training until his wrist was 100% perfect. Sometimes it is very difficult to persuade young athletes to take a proper rest from their sport, but it is essential to give the developing body a proper chance to heal completely. For Tim, since it was his dominant hand, the healing process was probably slowed down by the fact that he couldn't avoid using his wrist in daily life, which meant he had to be extra patient.

As for rehabilitation exercises, Tim performed regular stretching exercises for the wrist and forearm muscles, and after a three-week complete rest when the pain had gone I gave Tim a wrist-extension exercise to perform each day at home. This was done with a 1 kg dumbbell with the aim of building the strength in his wrist. After a further, precautionary fortnight, Tim played tennis for the first time, but only for five minutes. There was no adverse reaction to this session so he repeated the five-minute hit three times during that first week. The following week he played tennis three times for 10 minutes each session, and the next week he played three times for 20 minutes. During this week the wrist began to bother him again, and I asked whether he had kept up the wrist-strength exercises and he said he hadn't. He reintroduced the exercises and the wrist has been fine ever since. After another week, Tim was able to complete an hour of normal tennis lessons.

The whole process took about two months before Tim could compete again. This involved some tough decisions on his part, to be patient and not to play again for what must at his age have seemed an eternity. In addition, further patience was needed in order to progress back into tennis very slowly. I often see young athletes taking only the minimum rest until the pain subsides before resuming a full training schedule, with the frequent result - a recurrence of the injury.

Plyometrics Training

2007-06-05T10:50:00.000+07:00

Introduction

Speed and strength are integral components of fitness found in varying degrees in virtually all athletic movements. Simply put the combination of speed and strength is power. For many years coaches and athletes have sought to improve power in order to enhance performance. Throughout this century and no doubt long before, jumping, bounding and hopping exercises have been used in various ways to enhance athletic performance. In recent years this distinct method of training for power or explosiveness has been termed plyometrics. Whatever the origins of the word the term is used to describe the method of training which seeks to enhance the explosive reaction of the individual through powerful muscular contractions as a result of rapid eccentric contractions.

Muscle Mechanism

The maximum force that a muscle can develop is attained during a rapid eccentric contraction. However, it should be realised that muscles seldom perform one type of contraction in isolation during athletic movements. When a concentric contraction occurs (muscle shortens) immediately following an eccentric contraction (muscle lengthens) then the force generated can be dramatically increased. If a muscle is stretched, much of the energy required to stretch it is lost as heat, but some of this energy can be stored by the elastic components of the muscle. This stored energy is available to the muscle only during a subsequent contraction. It is important to realise that this energy boost is lost if the eccentric contraction is not followed immediately by a concentric effort. To express this greater force the muscle must contract within the shortest time possible. This whole process is frequently called the stretch shortening cycle and is the underlying mechanism of plyometric training.

Choose the method to fit the sport

The golden rule of any conditioning programme is specificity. This means that the movement you perform in training should match, as closely as possible, the movements encountered during competition. If you are rugby player practising for the line-out or a volleyball player interested in increasing vertical jump height, then drop jumping or box jumping may be the right exercise. However if you are a javelin thrower aiming for a more explosive launch, then upper body plyometrics is far more appropriate.

Plyometric Exercises

The following are examples of lower body and upper body plyometric exercises.

Lower Body

Drop Jumping:

- This exercise involves the athlete dropping (not jumping) to the ground from a raised platform or box, and then immediately jumping up. The drop down gives the pre-stretch to the leg muscles and the vigorous drive upwards the secondary concentric contraction The exercise will be more effective the shorter the time the feet are in contact with the ground. The loading in this exercise is governed by the height of the drop which should be in the region of 30-80 cm. Drop jumping is a relatively high impact form of plyometric training and would normally be introduced after the athlete had become accustomed to lower impact alternatives, such as two-footed jumping on the spot.

Bounding and hurdling:

If forward motion is more the name of your game, try some bounding. This is a form of plyometric training, where over sized strides are used in the running action and extra time spent in the air. Two-legged bounds reduces the impact to be endured, but to increase the intensity one legged bounding, or hopping, can be used. Bounding upstairs is a useful way to work on both the vertical and horizontal aspects of the running action. Multiple jumps over a series of obstacles like hurdles is a valuable drill for athletes training for sprinting or jumping events. Examples of lower body plyometric exercises with intensity level:

Standing based jumps performed on the spot (low intensity) - Tuck Jumps, Split Jumps
Jumps from standing (low-medium intensity) - Standing long jump, Standing hop, standing jump for height
Multiple jumps from standing (medium intensity) - bounds, bunny hops, double footed jumps over low hurdle, double footed jumps up steps
Multiple jumps with run in (High intensity) - 11 stride run + 2 hops and a jump into sandpit, 2 stride run in + bounds
Depth jumping (high-very high intensity) - jumps down and up off box (40-100cm), bounding up hill
Eccentric drop and hold drills (high-very high intensity) - hop and hold, bound/hop/bound/hop over 30m (athletes stops and holds on each landing before springing into the next move), drop and hold from a height > one metre

Upper Body

A variety of drills can be used to make the upper body more explosive:

Press ups & hand clap: Press-ups with a hand clap in between is a particularly vigorous way to condition the arms and chest. The pre-stretch takes place as the hands arrive back on the ground and the chest sinks, and this is followed quickly by the explosive upwards action. Once again, to get the best training effect keep the time in contact with the ground to a minimum.

Medicine Ball: Another means of increasing upper body strength popular with throwers is to lie on the ground face up. A partner then drops a medicine ball down towards the chest of the athlete, who catches the ball (pre-stretch) and immediately throws it back. This is another high-intensity exercise and should only be used after some basic conditioning.

Planning a Plyometric Session

The choice of exercises within a session and their order should be planned. A session could :

begin with exercises that are fast, explosive and designed for developing elastic strength (low hurdle jumps; low drop jumps)
work through exercises that develop concentric strength (standing long jump; high hurdle jumps)
finish with training for eccentric strength (higher drop jumps).

An alternative session could be:

begin with low hurdle jumps
progress to bounding and hopping,
continue with steps or box work
finish with medicine ball work out for abdominals and upper body.

Warm up

A thorough warm up is essential prior to plyometric training. Attention should be given to jogging, stretching (static and ballistic), striding and general mobility especially about the joints involved in the planned plyometric session. A cool down should follow each session.

How many ?

It is wise not to perform too many repetitions in any one session and since it is a quality session, with the emphasis on speed and power rather than endurance, split the work into sets with ample recovery in between.

Where to do it and what to wear

For bounding exercises use surfaces such as grass or resilient surfaces. Avoid cement floors because there is no cushioning. Choose well-cushioned shoes that are stable and can absorb some of the inevitable impact. All athletes should undergo general orthopaedic screening before engaging in plyometric training. Particular attention should be given to structural or postural problems that are likely to predispose the athlete to injury.

Conditioning for plyometrics

Higher than normal forces are put on the musculoskeletal system during plyometric exercises so it is important for the athlete to have a good sound base of general strength and endurance. Most experts state that a thorough grounding in weight-training is essential before you start plyometrics. It has been suggested that an athlete be able to squat twice his body weight before attempting depth jumps. However, less intensive plyometric exercises can be incorporated into general circuit and weight training during the early stages of training so as to progressively condition the athlete. Simple plyometric drills such as skipping hopping and bounding should be introduced first. More demanding exercises such as flying start single-leg hops and depth jumps should be limited to thoroughly conditioned athletes.

Young athletes

Some authors suggest that moderate jumps can be included in the athletic training of very young children (Lohman, 1989). However, great care needs to be exerted when prescribing any training procedures for preadolescent children. Because of the relatively immature bone structure in preadolescent and adolescent children the very great forces exerted during intensive depth jumps should be avoided (Smith, 1975).

Summary

Plyometric type exercises have been used successfully by many athletes as a method of training to enhance power. In order to realise the potential benefits of plyometric training the stretch-shortening cycle must be invoked. This requires careful attention to the technique used during the drill or exercise. The rate of stretch rather than the magnitude of stretch is of primary importance in plyometric training. In addition, the coupling time or ground contact time must be as short as possible. The challenge to you as coach or athlete is to select or create an exercise that is specific to the event and involves the correct muscular action. As long as you remember specificity and to ensure there is a pre stretch first then the only limit is your imagination. Plyometric exercise and weight training can be combined in complex training sessions to further develop explosive power.

Overuse Injuries in Children and Adolescents

2007-05-29T11:17:00.000+07:00

John P. DiFiori, MD
THE PHYSICIAN AND SPORTSMEDICINE - VOL 27 - NO. 1 - JANUARY 1999

In Brief: With the growth of youth sports programs, overuse injuries in young people have become common. Making the diagnosis can be challenging, but often the real hurdles are in identifying the causes of injury. Growth-related factors require special considerations in injury management. A directed history assessing these and other causative factors and a systematic exam help formulate a comprehensive rehabilitation program. Recommendations for a successful return to activity and prevention of reinjury include avoiding heavy training loads and early sport-specific training, taking adequate rest periods, and ensuring proper supervision.

The benefits of regular exercise are not limited to adults. Youth athletic programs provide opportunities to improve self-esteem, acquire leadership skills and self-discipline, and develop general fitness and motor skills. Peer socialization is another important, though sometimes overlooked, benefit. Participation, however, is not without injury risk. While acute trauma and rare catastrophic injuries draw much attention, overuse injuries are increasingly common.

Diagnostic and treatment efforts should focus on how the injury developed and consider issues that are unique to growing athletes. An understanding of these concepts provides the basis for making specific injury-prevention recommendations.

Kids' Activities Intensify

The true magnitude of youth sport participation in the United States is difficult to measure. Approximately 35 million children and young adults between ages 6 and 21 participate in sports, including 6 to 8 million in school programs (1,2). Over the last three decades participation among young women has increased dramatically (2). Involvement in nonscholastic clubs, in sports such as volleyball, basketball, softball, and gymnastics, also appears to be increasing. Furthermore, parents are hiring "personal" coaches and trainers to furnish specialized training beyond that provided by schools or clubs (3). Between school and club programs, private instruction, and popular summer sports camps, many youngsters are training and competing year-round. Though it is uncertain if more children and young adults are involved in sports, it seems clear that those who participate are doing so in a more extensive way.

Because training has become more sport-specific and nearly continuous, overuse injuries are now common among young athletes (table 1: not shown). Recent data indicate that
30% to 50% of all pediatric sports injuries are due to overuse (4-6). In a study (4) of children (aged 5 to 17) who presented to a sports injury clinic, 49.5% of 394 sports injuries were classified as overuse, with boys and girls displaying a similar frequency. The relative percentage of overuse injuries varies by sport, however. In a 2-year study (5) of 453 young elite athletes, 60% of swimmers' injuries were due to overuse, compared to 15% of soccer players' injuries. Athletes who had overuse injuries lost 54% more time from training and competition than those who had acute injuries.

How Overuse Occurs

Overuse injuries occur when a tissue is injured due to repetitive submaximal loading. The process starts when repetitive activity fatigues a specific structure such as tendon or bone. With sufficient recovery, the tissue adapts to the demand and is able to undergo further loading without injury. Without adequate recovery, microtrauma develops and stimulates the body's inflammatory response, causing the release of vasoactive substances, inflammatory cells, and enzymes that damage local tissue (7). Cumulative microtrauma from further repetitive activity ultimately causes clinical injury. In chronic or recurrent cases, continued loading produces degenerative changes leading to weakness, loss of flexibility, and chronic pain (8). Thus, in overuse injuries the problem is often not acute tissue inflammation, but chronic degeneration (ie, tendinosis instead of tendinitis).

Contributing Factors

An understanding of the risk factors contributing to overuse injuries is the cornerstone of prevention. These risk factors have typically been classified as intrinsic or extrinsic. In children, issues specific to the immature musculoskeletal system deserve special consideration (table 2). (See "Case Report: Knee Pain in a New Runner," below.)

Table 2. Factors Contributing to Overuse Injury

Intrinsic Factors

Growth (susceptibility of growth cartilage to repetitive stress,
inflexibility, muscle imbalance)
Prior injury
Inadequate conditioning
Anatomic malalignment
Menstrual dysfunction
Psychological factors (maturity level, self-esteem)

Extrinsic Factors

Too-rapid training progression and/or inadequate rest
Inappropriateequipment/footwear
Incorrect sport technique
Uneven or hard surfaces
Adult or peer pressure

Growth-related factors. Two factors related to growth are particularly important. First is the susceptibility of growth cartilage to repetitive stress. In children, growth cartilage is present at the articular surface, physes, and apophyses (9).

The articular cartilage appears most vulnerable to injury at the ankle, knee, and elbow. The development of osteochondritis dissecans at these sites is poorly understood and is possibly related to repetitive microtrauma (10).

Apophyseal injuries, including tibial tubercle apophysitis (Osgood-Schlatter disease) and calcaneal apophysitis (Sever's disease), are commonly attributed to overuse (11). They result from traction-induced microtrauma at the tendon-bone attachment. Contributing factors include the weakness of the growth cartilage relative to the tendon, and poor flexibility and increased traction during the adolescent growth spurt.

Physeal injuries may also be caused by repetitive loading. Growth plate injuries have been reported in the proximal humerus in throwers (12) and a badminton player (13) and in the proximal tibia of a runner (14). In gymnastics, repetitive loading of the wrists can injure the distal radial growth plate (15). It appears that metaphyseal ischemia inhibits mineralization within the zone of provisional calcification, prolonging chondrocyte life. This, together with continued division of chondrocytes in the proliferative zone, results in widening of the growth plate (16). Physeal injuries may produce partial or complete growth arrest (17).

The second growth-related factor that contributes to injuries is the rapid change in the relative lengths of the long bones and their adjacent muscle-tendon attachments. Joint tightness can develop when bones lengthen faster than muscle-tendon units, producing inflexibility and dynamic muscle imbalances. The discrepancy may also increase traction on the apophyses and stress at the joint surface (eg, patellofemoral joint).

Other intrinsic risk factors. Patients who have overuse injuries often have a history of previous injury, which may signal repeated errors in training or technique, an inadequately rehabilitated injury, or an unaddressed cause of the original injury. Menstrual dysfunction, often associated with a decrease in bone mineral density, appears to increase the risk of stress fractures in some athletes (18,19).

Alignment abnormalities have been associated with overuse injuries; these include pes planus, pes cavus, hyperpronation, tibial torsion, patellofemoral malalignment, femoral anteversion, and leg-length discrepancy. Although difficult to quantify, excessive ligamentous laxity also may predispose patients to overuse injury. Examples include anterior knee pain in a runner with a hypermobile patella or shoulder pain in a swimmer with glenohumeral instability. Laxity measurements are relatively static and may not accurately represent the dynamic situation (eg, velocity of pronation in a runner). The contributions of alignment problems and joint laxity to overuse injuries remain unclear because prospective studies are few (20). These limitations should be kept in mind when addressing anatomic alignment and joint laxity in individual rehabilitation programs.

The child's level of conditioning is another important consideration. Youngsters will likely benefit from developing general strength and endurance before participating in a training program. Unfit children may lack the proprioceptive skills, and weak and/or inflexible musculoskeletal structures may be unable to withstand the forces of training. Proper preparation and age-appropriate activities may help reduce injury.

Psychological factors should also be considered. Pressures from peers and adults often play a role (see below), but it is important to recognize that the child's level of maturity and self-esteem will influence motivation and the ability to focus on conditioning and safety.

Extrinsic risk factors. Changes in the components of the training program are frequently associated with overuse injury. Though variations in the frequency, intensity, and duration of training are necessary to improve performance, another important training element is often overlooked: rest. Gradual training progression accompanied by scheduled recovery periods is often well tolerated by young athletes. Abrupt increases in any facet of training and/or inadequate rest intervals often lead to overuse injury. An example is a young tennis player who enters a summer camp to work on his serve. Accustomed to practicing 2 hours per day, 5 days per week with the high school team, the athlete now spends 4 to 6 hours each day emphasizing the serve and quickly develops a rotator cuff tendinopathy. Parents and coaches should be aware that training programs designed for adults are not appropriate for young athletes. In fact, because of the great variation in physical and emotional maturity among children and adolescents, individualization of training schedules is encouraged.

Faulty equipment is another risk factor. Footwear should be well-fitted and suited to the demands of the activity. Running shoes should be replaced at regular intervals because they can lose more than 40% of their shock-absorbing capacity after 250 to 500 miles (21). Other examples include the grip size and string tension of a tennis racquet and the fit of a bicycle. Equipment changes may also result in injury. A well-conditioned track athlete who switches from training flats to spikes for interval workouts may develop lower-extremity problems from changes in running mechanics.

Poor technique can also produce injury. In tennis, for example, flexing the wrist at ball impact during the backhand stroke commonly causes lateral epicondylitis. Instruction in proper technique helps treat and prevent overuse injury. Finally, changes in training surfaces may lead to injury. Rapidly introducing hill running, running on a beach or other tilted surface, and running on uneven or hard surfaces can trigger injury.

Pressure from others--especially adults--may play a role in the development of overuse injury. Parents and coaches who promote excessive intensity or who encourage a "no pain, no gain" or win-at-all-costs attitude may well contribute to injury. Assessing a
child's motivation can be helpful: Is he or she genuinely interested in playing, or doing so only because of others' expectations? Children who have uncharacteristic symptoms or fail to progress as expected with treatment may be expressing their lack of interest in the sport.

Clinical Evaluation

History. A thorough history cannot be overemphasized. A detective-like approach will not only help establish the diagnosis, but will also suggest the severity of the injury and reveal many potential predisposing factors. Have patients describe when they first recognized the injury. Once this is determined, ask detailed questions about training in the several weeks before the first signs of injury:

Was there a change in training intensity, frequency, or duration?
Was a new technique or piece of equipment introduced?
Is the athlete involved in other activities such as resistance training or physical education classes that could have contributed to the injury?
When was the last athletic shoe purchase?
Has there been a similar injury in the past, and does the patient have a history of other overuse injuries?
How were past injuries treated?

In adolescent girls, document age of menarche and whether cycles are regular or irregular. Menstrual dysfunction should be evaluated concurrently.

Recording a patient's age and reviewing the growth curve can determine if he or she is in a rapid growth period. The mean onset of the adolescent growth spurt is approximately 10 years for girls and 12 years for boys. Peak height velocity is reached, on average, at age 12 for girls and age 14 for boys. Injuries that occur without obvious training changes or contributing factors may simply be related to the musculoskeletal changes associated with accelerated growth.

Next, have the patient describe the location and quality of the pain and when it occurs during activity. Pain that occurs at the end of an activity and resolves before the next training session signals a relatively mild injury; pain during activity that impairs performance is more severe. One must always consider the possibility of occult tumors or rheumatologic conditions in young athletes who have chronic pain symptoms.

Observe patient-parent interaction in the exam room:

Do the parents attempt to control the physician's encounter with the child?
Does the child seem enthusiastic about the sport?
Do parents place an inappropriate emphasis on competition?
What are the athlete's and parents' hopes regarding future participation? Are there aspirations for national-level competition or college scholarships?

Identify how the athlete, parents, or coaches have attempted to treat the injury. Those who have been to several physicians may have unrealistic expectations that should be addressed.

Physical examination. The examiner should localize the complaint, identify injured tissue, and assess all structures that dissipate force in the involved extremity. For a patient who has anterior knee pain, for example, the exam should proceed from the ground up, beginning with foot and ankle alignment and continuing proximally. This method can identify underlying malalignment, inflexibility, muscle imbalance, joint laxity, or restriction of motion. The examiner also should compare flexor-extensor muscle groups and the injured extremity to the uninjured.
Careful palpation of the painful area will often reveal the exact injury site. Recreating the loading pattern can help reproduce symptoms. Simple methods include having the patient run or hop in place or applying pressure over a musculotendinous structure while applying resistance at various joint angles. When provocative maneuvers are unsuccessful, examining the child immediately after the sports activity may be useful.

Occasionally, symptoms are difficult to localize. Poorly localized symptoms are not unusual for some overuse injuries, such as back pain in a dancer who has a stress reaction of the pars interarticularis. In other situations, the sport may be unmasking an underlying problem. Vague knee pain, for example, may be the presenting complaint of a patient who has osteochondritis dissecans, a hip disorder, or an osteosarcoma.

Imaging studies may be helpful in some situations. Radiographs can identify osteochondral lesions (figure 1), stress fractures, tumors, and growth-plate widening. Additional studies, such as bone scans or magnetic resonance imaging, may be useful if plain radiographs are unrevealing (figure 2). The specifics of each case guide the decision to obtain radiologic studies, and which to choose.

Treatment

The fundamental goal of treatment is to develop strong, flexible tissue that absorbs the forces of the sport. The principal measures: [Figure 2]

Relative rest. The initial phase of treatment involves protecting the injured site from a level of impact loading that perpetuates overuse by reducing training volume and using alternative activities to maintain aerobic conditioning and morale. The patient's clinical history provides a guide to the amount of rest needed from sport-specific training (table 3: not shown). Less severe injuries such as mild patellofemoral pain warrant a 25% to 75% decrease in training load; a more severe injury, such as a stress fracture, initially requires complete rest from the offending activity. Examples of alternate activities include pool running with or without a flotation vest, bicycling, rowing, and swimming. Patients may continue sports activities that do not stress the injured area.

Ice. Ice, an effective modality that should be used throughout treatment, reduces swelling and pain by causing vasoconstriction, slowing nerve conduction, and reducing cellular metabolism (22). It should be applied lightly over a cloth or bandage for 10 to 20 minutes several times a day for the first 48 to 72 hours and after rehabilitation exercises. Ice massage, rubbing the ice in a circular motion over the injury, is another option.

Other modalities. Topical heat (ie, moist heat packs) may help increase collagen extensibility and reduce stiffness. Other modalities such as ultrasound, iontophoresis, and electrical stimulation may be useful adjuncts. The clinical benefits of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have not been clearly demonstrated (23). When rest and ice have not relieved patients' pain, a short NSAID course may reduce pain and allow rehabilitation to proceed.

Rehabilitation. Once pain has been controlled, supervised rehabilitation can begin. The objectives of rehabilitation are to restore range of motion, strength, flexibility, and
proprioception. Returning to the sport before reaching these endpoints increases the risk of reinjury.

As range of motion is restored, pain-free resistance exercises are begun. Isometrics and limited isotonics are often part of this stage; these activities should be supervised to guard against improper technique and equipment misuse. Soft-tissue techniques can be used to reduce adhesions and loosen tight structures.

Gentle flexibility exercises are added when strength and range of motion improve. Overstretching should be avoided. Strengthening and flexibility exercises should also address adjacent uninjured structures. Aerobic conditioning is also initiated to prepare patients for their return to sport. The level of pain during activity and symptoms and findings the following day guide the progression. Significant improvement signals the time to add eccentric and isokinetic exercises, which require close supervision to ensure correct technique. Simultaneous increases in exercise resistance and velocity should be avoided.

After range of motion, strength, and flexibility improve, gradually adding sport-specific activities allows patients to regain proprioception and reacquaint themselves with the biomechanics of the sport. Patients can resume training and competition when they have recovered their muscular and aerobic endurance and can perform sport-specific activities without pain.

Avoiding Reinjury

Athletes who complete a thorough rehabilitation may suffer reinjury if the risk factors that led to the problem are not addressed. Athletes, parents, and coaches should be educated about training errors that may have occurred, the importance of scheduled rest periods, and the need to avoid excessive training volumes, especially during the adolescent growth spurt. To correct poor technique, the coach or trainer often must instruct athletes and provide reminders about possible relapses.

Patients may benefit from advice on appropriate footwear and equipment. Over-the-counter shoe inserts can help modify biomechanical malalignment. In some situations, such as marked pes planus in a patient who has refractory plantar fasciitis, custom orthoses may be needed.

Preventing Overuse

The American College of Sports Medicine estimates that 50% of overuse injuries in children and adolescents are preventable (24). Preparticipation screening, required by most schools, should be encouraged for all children involved in organized athletics. This is an excellent opportunity to identify sport-specific injury risk factors and to assess young people's maturity, skill level, and motivation for the sport. Parents should ensure that their children will receive proper supervision and coaching. They can lobby local organizations to sponsor coaches' attendance at coaching and safety seminars.

Training programs should accentuate general fitness and avoid excessive volume. All programs for youngsters should include conditioning and flexibility. Early sport specialization should be eschewed. Adults may seize on an example of a child who began exclusive training for a sport and became a local or national success, but the daily repetition required to perfect sport-specific skills too often leads to injuries. Experimentation with different sports allows children to develop fitness and motor skills, enjoy the social aspects of sport, and choose the sports they prefer. Parents can be reassured that there are many examples of outstanding athletes who did not become involved in their sports until a relatively late age. Bill Rodgers, four-time winner of the Boston and New York marathons, started running cross-country at age 15. After Phoebe Mills won a bronze medal in gymnastics in the 1988 Olympics, she took up diving and competed in national competitions from 1990 to 1994. Michael Jordan didn't make his high school's varsity team until he was in 11th grade.

Because children rarely suffer overuse injuries when they control the intensity level, coaches and other adults should avoid setting rigid expectations about training intensity. Despite scarce data about training progression and injury, gradual progression should be stressed. A general guide is the "10% rule": Total training (intensity, frequency, duration, or any combination of these) should increase no more than 10% at a time (6,24). Thus, a young runner who runs 20 miles per week would run 22 miles the next week, without changing pace. The rule is a useful starting point, but must be adjusted for each athlete.

Periodization may also help to reduce overuse injuries and prevent overtraining. This technique involves the systematic cycling of training loads over set periods of time with well-defined rest periods. Finally, training should be carefully monitored during the adolescent growth spurt. Because growth-related factors can predispose patients to injury, it may be appropriate to temporarily modify training during this period.

Return to Safe Play

A diligent search for contributing factors and an understanding of the issues that are unique to children are essential to injury management. Incorporating these elements into a comprehensive rehabilitation program usually results in a successful return to participation. Attention to preventive measures such as training progression and appropriate supervision will allow youngsters to continue to enjoy the many benefits of organized play.

References

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Stanitiski CL: Common injuries in preadolescent and adolescent athletes: recommendations for prevention. Sports Med 1989;7(1):32-41
Dohrmann G, Henson S: A new ballgame for high school athletes. Los Angeles Times 1997, June 19:C1
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Nirschl RP: Elbow tendinosis/tennis elbow. Clin Sports Med 1992;11(4):851-870
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Peck DM: Apophyseal injuries in the young athlete. Am Fam Physician 1995;51(8):1887-1888,1891-1895
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Boyd KT, Batt ME: Stress fracture of the proximal humeral epiphysis in an elite junior badminton player. Br J Sports Med 1997;31(3):252-253
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Caine D, Roy S, Singer KM, et al: Stress changes of the distal radial growth plate: a radiographic survey and review of the literature. Am J Sports Med 1992;20(3):290-298
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Case Report: Knee Pain in a New Runner

A 13-year-old girl presented with a 2-week history of left anterior knee pain. She was a swimmer, but she had begun training with the school's track program 3 weeks earlier, and running was a new sport for her. She had been running 8 to 10 miles per week (up to 2 miles per session) and said pain onset was gradual. At presentation, she reported pain with initiation of running such that she could no longer complete 1 mile. The patient said her pain was more noticeable when she walked up and down stairs and that her knee felt a bit stiff when she was sitting in class.

History. The patient did not recall any prior knee injury, and there was no history of locking, catching, swelling, or instability. She reported no other sports-related injuries and had not been strength training. The majority of the running was done on either the road or a dirt track. She had iced the knee the first few days she had pain, but had not done so recently. Instead, she purchased a neoprene knee sleeve, which did not provide much relief. She denied any pain when sleeping at night, and had no other joint complaints. Her medical and surgical histories were otherwise unremarkable. She had not yet begun menses.

The patient was accompanied by her mother. The interaction between mother and child appeared appropriate. The patient provided most information without prompting or much qualification from her mother. She stated that her participation in track stemmed from her own interest.

Physical examination. Height and weight were in the 35th and 20th percentiles for her age respectively. Her growth history was not available for review. Examination of the lower extremities revealed normal-appearing arch heights and mild genu valgum. Tubercle sulcus angles (seated Q angles) were slightly increased bilaterally. No pelvic obliquity was observed. No knee effusion was noted, and the patient demonstrated full pain-free range of motion without crepitus. Patellar inhibition testing was positive on the left, but negative on the right. Patellar tilting and medial glide were normal. The medial and lateral facets were nontender, and a nontender medial plica was noted. Hamstring flexibility was decreased bilaterally. Quadriceps tone was poor. The ligaments were stable. The patient's running shoes were moderately worn cross-trainers.

Diagnosis. A working diagnosis of patellofemoral pain syndrome was established.
Treatment. The patient's running was reduced to one quarter mile every other day, preferably on grass. Ice massage was recommended three to four times daily, and swimming was selected as an alternative activity for conditioning. She was instructed to begin daily isometric (open- and closed-chain) exercises for the quadriceps, hamstrings, and gastroc-soleus complex with an emphasis on the vastus medialis obliquus. A lower-extremity flexibility program was also started, focusing on the hamstrings. Proper running shoes were recommended. If symptoms were improving, she was allowed to run 1 1/2 miles total the second week and 2 miles the third week.

By the time of her follow-up visit 3 weeks later, the pain had resolved, and she was running 1/2 mile four times per week. Isotonic strengthening was begun to build lower-extremity strength. Running mileage was slowly increased.

At her final visit, 6 weeks after follow-up, she had been running with her team without limitation for 1 week. The patellar inhibition test was negative and knee flexibility and muscle tone had improved. She was advised to maintain strength and flexibility exercises and avoid rapid training changes.

Discussion. The patient's pain was clearly related to the onset of her running program along with several other contributors. Intrinsic factors were growth, poor hamstring flexibility, inadequate conditioning, and anatomic malalignment (mild genu valgum and increased tubercle-sulcus angles). Extrinsic factors were rapid training progression, inappropriate footwear, and hard running surface (road).

Dr DiFiori is an assistant professor in the Department of Family Medicine Division of Sports Medicine and assistant team physician in the Department of Intercollegiate Athletics at the University of California, Los Angeles. Address correspondence to John P. DiFiori, MD, UCLA Department of Family Medicine, 200 UCLA Medical Plaza Building, Suite 220, Los Angeles, CA 90095; e-mail to jdifiori@ucla.edu

Periodisation 2

2007-05-25T09:59:00.000+07:00

by :Owen Anderson
from: peak performence

Undulating v linear training

With undulating periodisation, the so-called phases of training tend to be much shorter than with the linear variety. Exercise physiologists and some coaches have been attracted to undulating periodisation at least partly because of the belief that frequent changes in training stimuli are highly conducive to gains in fitness. One physiological basis for this principle is that with undulating periodisation the nervous system is forced to adapt to a wide variety of situations, including the elicitation of tremendous amounts of force (when resistance is high) and very rapid rates of force application (when resistance is low and reps are completed quickly). In theory, when these various stimuli are presented together in close temporal proximity, the neuromuscular system might adapt unusually quickly and develop an enhanced ability to respond with great force and speed.

Does undulating periodisation really work better than the classic linear model? To find out, researchers from Arizona State University divided 20 strength-trained men into two equal groups for a 12-week training programme. Both groups performed abdominal crunches (3-4 sets of 15-25 repetitions), biceps curls (3 sets at 8-12 rep max) and lat pull-downs (3 sets at 8-12rep max) three times a week. Both groups also trained intensely with two key exercises – the bench press and the leg press – but the performance of these exercises was completed in either a linear-periodised or undulating-periodised way. For the bench press and leg press, the linear-periodisation (LP) group performed 3 sets per workout at an intensity of 8-rep max for the first four weeks of the study, 6-rep max for the next four weeks and 4-rep max for the remainder of the study – a classic linear pattern.

The other group used daily undulating periodisation (DUP), with workout patterns changing from day to day. For this group, the first session of each week of the 12-week programme consisted of 3 sets at 8-rep max, the second workout of 3 sets at 6-rep max and the third of 3 sets at 4-rep max. As you can see, training volume and intensity were altered in different ways for the two groups, but total volume and intensity were absolutely equivalent over the study period.

Both LP and DUP groups increased strength significantly in both the leg and bench presses over the 12 weeks, but the gains were significantly greater for the DUP group. Specifically, this group enhanced bench press strength by 29%, compared with 14% for the LP athletes, and boosted leg-press strength by 56%, compared with just 26% for the LP pressers.

What was going on? Why did the DUP programme have such a pronounced effect on strength gain? The researchers suggest that the nervous system may be the key player involved in producing the differing gains in strength. In theory, the nervous system may adapt less readily to training if it is exposed to a single type of training for an extended period of time (such as the four-week blocks of time used in the LP plan in this research) and might respond more effectively if the volume and intensity of training are adjusted frequently (as they were with DUP).

As implied earlier, pointing a finger at the nervous system is a reasonable thing to do, and is supported by the fact that in this study there were no significant changes in body composition or muscle circumference in the two groups over the 12-week period! Thus, the greater strength displayed by the DUP group was not due to thicker muscles or leaner physiques but must have been related to the way the nervous system was controlling the sinews.

A number of practical pointers emerge from both this study and the Texas investigation mentioned earlier. First, it seems obvious that athletes should probably not plan extended ‘blocks’ of training (lasting several weeks or longer) during which workouts are relatively uniform, since fitness progression is likely to be slower than with more variable training. Thus, the familiar pattern of speed on Tuesday, tempo training on Thursday and a long effort on the weekend may make for a nice training week, but is not a building block for a great training month and is a frankly crumbly foundation for a six-month preparation for a major event.

It also makes sense for athletes to diverge from traditional patterns of ‘base-building’ and ‘recovery training’. At the beginning of a training year, many athletes try to lay a foundation for what lies ahead by working at low-to-moderate intensities while gradually building up their total volume of training. During this base-building period, the quality of training is generally low, in part because it is believed that the musculoskeletal system is not yet strong enough to handle higher-intensity work. There is really little justification for this practice, however: as long as intense efforts are attempted reasonably, the risk of injury should be no greater than it is with augmentations in volume.

Variety in base-building and recovery

In addition, since the whole idea of training is to progressively and steadily move one’s fitness to higher and higher levels, it makes little sense to devote significant blocks of time to exertions which will fail to do this or will do it more slowly than other forms of training. Thus, varied training, with an adequate inclusion of quality, is preferable to uniform, mediocre-intensity training during base-building periods.

The avoidance of uniform training is also important during recovery periods (i.e. during the month after a major competition or a week of ‘easy’ training within a strenuous training period). However, recovering is not the same as training easily all the time; one can still recover while using a varied programme into which some quality has been inserted.

While these pointers about periodisation should help you, bear in mind that real knowledge about the proper periodisation of training is extremely ‘lightweight’ at present: not only have most periodisation studies been constrained by time (and, to some extent, by the researchers’ imaginations) but no studies at all have been carried out with female athletes, veterans or children, while the periodisation models used in research projects to date have been quite limited.

Periodisation work has also been biased towards strength trainers, with little emphasis on endurance athletes. In one of the very few studies in which endurance activity was even mentioned, an effort was made to assess the impact of various types of strength training on endurance performance. Three different strength-training programmes were compared, one featuring one set at 8-12-RM per workout, the second including three sets at 10-RM and the third consisting of a periodised plan for advancing strength and power. Seven different exercises were used in each programme.

With the periodised plan, volume steadily decreased and intensity was augmented from 10-RM to 3-RM over the course of the study. After seven weeks, the researchers measured resistance to fatigue during back squatting, and endurance while cycling at an intensity of 265 watts. As it turned out, only the 3x10 and periodised groups displayed improvements in both tests. In addition, improvements in cycling endurance time tended to be greatest in the periodised group.

So what is the bottom line on periodisation? As the renowned running coach Arthur Lydiard once said: ‘Athletes tend to repeat their basic training patterns over and over again, yet with each repetition of the basic plan they expect different (ie better) results.’ A properly periodised programme prevents the performance plateaus which are inevitable with over-repetitive training. As you construct your overall programme, you should be certain to include variety in your training, not just from month to month but also from week to week and even from day to day; the limited periodisation research which is available suggests that such variety can be conducive to fitness gains.

You should also be sure to include in your programme workouts which have the greatest chance of optimising the physiological variables that are crucial for success in your event, and you should ‘mix’ such workouts over time instead of hammering away at just two or three different types of exertion.

Skill-strength periodisation may be the best way forward

One of the interesting periodisation schemes which will be looked at closely in the future is ‘skill-strength periodisation’ (SSP). Once the linchpin of the former Soviet Union’s track-and-field teams’ Olympic preparations, SSP requires athletes to spend an extensive amount of time perfecting their technical skills during the preparatory phase of training before embarking on the development of strength, power and endurance. The idea is that once athletes are skilled (ie once they are technically proficient jumpers, stroke-perfect swimmers or economical runners), they can then use their increasing strength to boost performance optimally, because the increased strength that they subsequently gain is not ‘wasted’ on inefficient movements but channelled directly into proper patterns of motion. Of course, this is the opposite of many traditional schemes, which mindlessly crank up the volume of training as the first step in the periodised plan in order to ‘build strength’.

As you might expect, no carefully-controlled published scientific research has ever contrasted skill-strength periodisation with the classic linear model, but SSP is attractive for logical reasons. With SSP, swimmers, for example, might spend months perfecting their strokes before they ever bothered with high-volume or high-intensity swimming; since strength is extremely movement-specific, the swimmers could then be assured that the gains in strength achieved during subsequent high-volume training would be specific to the best-possible movements – the ones which could produce the fastest and most efficient swimming.

Similarly, runners might spend many months developing outstandingly efficient running form before worrying about hiking their volume and intensity of training. Even though running is not considered a ‘skill sport’, early enhancement of efficiency could help runners avoid the ‘hard-wiring’ of inefficient running patterns (which might develop during 100-mile weeks characterised by sloppy form) and might also foster higher-quality training during subsequent periods of high volume and/or intensity.

Periodisation 1

2007-05-25T09:53:00.000+07:00

by :Owen Anderson
from: peak performence

Why you’ll never get better if you always do what you’ve always done.

If you want to improve your performance, you can’t train in the same way all the time; if you did, your body would simply adapt to the training, your fitness would settle at a fixed level and you could continue to train vigorously without making the slightest improvement. Hoping to perform better with an unchanging training programme is like expecting to become highly skilled at calculus while working solely on the simple equations encountered in first-year algebra.

Does that seem obvious? It should; nevertheless, many athletes follow the same basic training plan, month after month, year after year, in the expectation of PBs. A typical weekly programme for an incredible number of endurance runners for much of the training year consists of one session of speed work, a tempo run or hill effort and a long run at the weekend. When their performances don’t improve significantly, they scratch their heads and wonder what is wrong.

One of the key things that is wrong, of course, is that they have failed to periodise their training in a productive way. Periodisation in this context means changes in the volume, intensity and frequency of training over time; it also encompasses changes in the basic structure of training over time.

The notion that proper periodisation of training is necessary for the achievement of peak performance originated with the ancient Greeks, who used basic periodised training schemes to prepare their athletes for the Olympics. For example, the legendary Milo of Croton varied only the intensity of his training, lifting a bull-calf on a daily basis until it was fully grown, at which point Milo was able to lug the adult bull around the Olympic stadium.

Another legendary figure Galen (AD 129-199), who became ‘doctor to the gladiators’ in Rome, was the first person to write at length about periodisation. He believed there were various types of exercise which needed to be blended in order to enhance performance; and he classified exercises into those which exercised the muscles without violent movement (digging and weightlifting, for example), quick exertions which promoted activity (ball play and a form of gymnastics), and ‘violent’ exercises, which might today be called ‘plyometrics’.

After Galen’s death, periodisation went through a long-ish ‘down period’, but the philosophy of changing training as a function of time experienced a small rebirth in the 1950s and began to come into full bloom in the 1960s and early 1970s. This revival was due, at least in part, to some groundbreaking research by the noted physiologist Hans Selye, who ultimately formulated what he called the ‘general-adaptation syndrome’.

According to this theory, physiological systems respond to any changes they experience in ways which allow the ‘stressors’ (things in the environment that are different and challenging) to be coped with more readily. Once the adaptive response is completed, however, the physiological systems stop changing and new stressors are required to produce further adaptation. If stressors are uniquely and properly periodised, an organism can continue adapting and – in theory – continue improving its overall physical capabilities until its absolute upper limit of adaptation is reached.

Periodisation does work

Basic scientific research reveals that periodisation does work, in that it produces better improvements in performance than non-periodised training programmes. In the first periodisation study ever published, college-age males completed either a non-periodised strengthening programme of 3x6 sets or a periodised programme, which progressed from high volume (lots of reps) and low intensity (low resistance) to lower volume and higher intensity over a six-week period. After six weeks, the periodised trainees were appreciably superior to the non-periodised group across a number of measures, including parallel back squatting strength, lean body mass and vertical jump power. A major problem with this study, however, was that total volume of training was greater in the periodised group, and thus periodisation was not the only variable.

In an outstanding follow-up study, which partly overcame this problem, Darryn Willoughby of Texas A&M University divided 92 weight-trained male college students into four equal groups, undergoing differing 16-week training programmes using just bench press and parallel back squat exercises(3). At the beginning of the study period, the members of all four groups showed equivalent strength in these two exercises.

The work programmes varied as follows:

Group 1 trained with five sets of 10 reps of each exercise per workout three times per week, with three-minute recoveries between sets and with resistance set at 79% of the one-repetition maximum (1-RM, the maximum weight which could be lifted one – and only one – time). This relative intensity was kept constant throughout the study, although the absolute intensity (actual amount of resistance) could increase if the 1-RM increased (1-RM being determined for each exercise at four-weekly intervals). Thus, this programme involved little periodisation;
Group 2 trained with 6x8 reps per workout thrice weekly, with the relative intensity set at 83% of the 1-RM for each exercise. As for Group 1, relative intensity remained constant, although absolute intensity could rise if 1-RM burgeoned during the monthly strength tests;
Group 3 enjoyed a more generous periodisation programme, hitting 5x10 reps at 79% of 1-RM per workout for four weeks, 4x8 reps at 83% of 1-RM for the next four weeks, 3x6 reps at 88% of 1-RM for another four weeks, then 3x4 reps at 92% of 1-RM over the final month. For this group, relative intensity (% of 1-RM), absolute intensity (actual amount of resistance) and training volume (number of reps completed) all varied during the study, and the overall protocol resembled a classic periodised plan, with training volume decreasing over time while training intensity advanced. During the second half of the study, the members of this group were lifting significantly less weight per week than those in groups 1 and 2, but were working considerably more intensely (lifting more weight per rep). For example, during weeks 8-16, groups 1 and 2 were bench-pressing over 12,000kg per week, compared with just 3,400-4,800kg for Group 3. Note, though, that for all three groups training frequency was identical at three workouts per week.
Group 4 (the control group) had it easy, playing badminton throughout the 16-week period and engaging in no parallel squat or bench press training. They did, however, have tests for 1-RM at four weekly intervals, just like the strength-training athletes.

After 16 weeks, members of group 3 were stronger in both bench press and parallel squat than any of the other groups. How should this finding be interpreted? Dr. Willoughby suggested the key take-home lesson that variation is an important component of training programmes; but we can go a bit deeper than that. Basically, intensity tends to be a more potent producer of fitness than mere volume or frequency of training. And athletes who periodise their training so that the average intensity of training increases over time should triumph over those whose training intensity remains flat. In this study, intensity was raised by giving strength-trainers higher relative and absolute resistances, but the principle would also work for endurance athletes. Cyclists, for example, could gradually increase average training intensity by pedalling faster during quality workouts, or boosting the number of quality sessions conducted each week.

So, periodisation which pushes quality appears to be a good thing. One major problem, however, is that there are so many different types of quality workouts to consider. Endurance athletes, for example, might choose to train at anything between 85 and 130% of VO2max, and any such effort could be considered a quality exertion. Power-type athletes might select plyometric sessions, general strengthening drills, movement-specific strength training or classic upper- and lower-body strengthening efforts.

Training should be goal-oriented

As noted strength expert Steven Fleck points out, strength trainers can vary the number of sets for each exercise, the number of repetitions per set, the actual exercises performed, the number of exercises per training session, the rest periods between sets and exercises, the resistance used with each set, the muscle action performed (eccentric, concentric or isometric), and the number of training sessions completed per day and per week. How should these possibilities be brought together in a cohesive plan?

It is important to remember, too, that periodisation should always be goal-oriented, so that fitness increases steadily during the training period and reaches a maximum reasonably in advance of the major event of the season or year. In addition, the endurance athlete needs to periodise workouts so that vVO2max, lactate threshold, economy of movement, event-specific strength, power and event-specific preparation are optimised. How can all this be accomplished? With four key variables to consider (intensity and type of workout, volume and frequency) and an incredibly wide range of values associated with each variable, athletes have almost limitless options. How does one pick the right periodisation system?

This is a question that science has found it hard to answer, and outstanding, practical, well-controlled scientific studies on periodisation are few and far between. This may seem a bit surprising, given the general popularity of periodisation, but one of the basic problems is that exercise scientists often feel that they need to limit the length of their research studies to 12 weeks or so and it is very difficult to complete a comprehensive periodisation study in such a short period.

Large fitness gains take time

When we examine the differences in training between athletes who are consistently successful and those who perform inconsistently, we are most interested not in what the high-performing athletes have done over the past week or even the past month or two, but in how they have organised their training over at least the last year. Proper periodisation means coordinating training optimally over extended periods of time – long enough to make large gains in fitness and prepare properly for major competitions.

Another obstacle to periodisation research is that it can be hard to get a group of athletes to adhere to a specific training programme for a year or more at a time; many athletes will drop out, others will not follow the prescribed training very closely and some will get injured. For an exercise researcher, embarking on a long-term periodisation project is a pretty risky thing to do because the whole thing may blow up in his or her face after many months of hard work.

As a result, research scientists have tended to bite off small parts of the periodisation puzzle. For example, one of the questions they have been most interested in is whether ‘linear’ periodisation is preferable to the ‘undulating’ variety. The resulting research is actually fairly interesting, especially since many athletes follow some form of the linear periodisation plan.

With linear periodisation, athletes generally build up their total volume of training in a linear way and then gradually (linearly) decrease volume while steadily increasing training intensity (the basic approach followed by the strength-trained athletes in the Texas study mentioned above). Generally, training volume reaches its nadir and training intensity its apex shortly before the most important competition of the overall training cycle, which is commonly pegged at six or 12 months; (we won’t discuss macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles in this article because such discussions are generally as useful to athletes as discourses about motorcycles)!

Although linear periodisation is appealing to athletes, there is nothing particularly beneficial about it from a scientific standpoint. The underlying philosophy is that athletes need to build up some level of strength and endurance before they attempt high-intensity training; thus, they work on boosting their volume of training before initiating high-quality work.

The problem with this argument, however, is that the basic premise is wrong: athletes are capable of carrying out reasonable amounts of intense training early in the training year, and there is no real reason why they should not do so. In fact, since competition requires intense effort, since efficiency during intense work can only be developed during intense exercise and since intense work is the most potent advancer of fitness, it would seem logical to introduce high-quality training as early as possible in the overall training schedule.

The less popular undulating periodisation is marked by fairly frequent alterations in the intensity and volume of training. Instead of changing training over a period of months, undulating training makes major changes on a weekly or even daily basis. Strength-trainers, for example, might move from high-volume, low-intensity work to low-volume, high-intensity lifting within the same week. A typical example of this would be the completion of sets of 12-15 repetitions maxima on Monday, 8-10 on Wednesday and just 3-5 on Friday; (the word ‘maxima’ here refers to using a resistance with which one could complete no more than the stated number of reps in any one set).

Continued »

Total Badminton

2007-05-16T08:41:00.000+07:00

Icuk Sugiarto dan Buku "Total Badminton"

MENGEJUTKAN memang. Sebab selama ini orang mengenal dirinya sebagai seorang tokoh yang kritis terhadap permasalahan yang menyangkut cabang bulutangkis. Jika ada yang tidak berkenan di hatinya, tokoh ini akan mengkritik habis-habisan, dan terkadang membuat orang yang dikritiknya jadi "gregetan."

Pada Rabu (20/11) lalu, tokoh yang bernama H Icuk Sugiarto memasuki tahap berikutnya dengan melengkapi karir bulutangkisnya setelah sebelumnya menjadi pemain, pelatih dan pengurus, saat ini tampil sebagai penulis dengan meluncurkan sebuah buku panduan berlatih berjudul "Total Badminton."

Kehadiran buku tersebut mengejutkan sejumlah tokoh dan pengamat bulutangkis nasional. Mereka sangat merespon kehadiran buku tersebut. Ini terbukti dengan hadirnya Ketua Umum PB PBSI Chairul Tanjung, Dirjen Olahraga Prof Dr Toho Cholik Mutohir, pengamat olahraga nasional MF Siregar, mantan Menpora Hayono Isman, mantan pebulutangkis Ferry Soneville serta mantan pebulutangkis lainnya dan juga terlihat sejumlah mantan atlet nasional seperti Yayuk Basuki dan suaminya Suharyadi, serta sprinter Purnomo.

Ketua Umum PB PBSI Chairul Tanjung dan Mendiknas Prof Dr Malik Fadjar saat menerima Icuk Sugiarto yang kini juga Ketua Umum Pengda PBSI DKI Jakarta, sama-sama berjanji akan memanfaatkan buku "Total Badminton" sebagai bacaan resmi mulai dari Sekolah Dasar (SD) hingga Sekolah Menengah Umum (SMU), serta akan digunakan sebagai buku panduan di setiap perkumpulan bulutangkis di seluruh Indonesia.

Icuk sendiri menyatakan bahwa terbitnya buku ini didasari oleh minimnya buku-buku bulutangkis di Indonesia, padahal para pemain bulutangkis dunia sebagian besar berasal dari Indonesia. Padahal jika sebagian dari atlet bulutangkis nasional peduli pada masa depan prestasi cabang bulutangkis dengan menulis buku, maka bukannya tidak mungkin akan lahir pemain-pemain kaliber dunia dengan jumlah yang tidak sedikit.

Icuk juga menyadari bahwa dirinya hanya memiliki pengetahuan teknik dan membutuhkan sebuah sokongan akademis agar buku itu layak untuk dikonsumsi. Disamping itu dia juga mengakui bahwa pada terbitan pertama ini masih terdapat kekurangan, terutama dari segi pencetakan dan foto yang terpampang di dalam buku tersebut.

"Karena itu saya bekerjasama dengan akademisi dengan pendekatan ilmiah, terutama dalam bagian-bagian menyangkut latihan fisik," katanya merujuk dua pakar pendidikan olahraga Dr Furqon Hidayat dan Drs Kunto Kurniawan yang membantunya.

Ia berharap buku ini mampu memberikan panduan bagi para atlet bulutangkis, terutama pemula, untuk meningkatkan kemampuannya.

Sementara itu, Dr Furqon mengungkapkan beberapa bagian "Total Badminton" didasari riset pada 1992-1993. "Kami melakukan pengamatan langsung pada beberapa pemain dunia saat tampil di Indonesia, serta beberapa pemain Indonesia. Kami juga mengamati rekaman pertandingan."

Dari pengamatan itu, Furqon menyimpulkan bahwa tuntutan strandar aerobik dan anaerobik pemain bulutangkis lebih tinggi dibanding pemain tenis. Hal ini bisa dilihat dari intensitas pukulan, gerakan pemain, serta waktu in play (dalam permainan) dan off play (jeda antar-permainan).